
Copyright]^^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



/ 




ONE DEPARTMENT OF THE FARM-FA.CTORY 



FARM STOCK 

A Practical Treatise on Horses, Cattle, Sheep 
and Swine, including their breeding, feeding 
care and management in health and disease 



By 

CHARLES WILLIAM pURKETT 

Editor of American Agriculturist 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

CHANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1909 



b 



;e 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Recerved 

FEB 6 1909 

^ Copyrlifnt entry _ 
OLWS Ou XXO No 



Copyright, 1909 

Orange Judd Company 

New York 



Entered at Stationers' Hall 
LONDON. ENGLAND 



PREFACE 

Farm stock have played an important role in 
American farming. An immense quantity of 
roughage material unavailable as food for man, 
each year by means of live stock is converted into 
appetizing and nutritious food; protection and 
clothing are secured from their hair and wool; 
shoes are made from their hides ; labor is done by 
their employment; and assistance in a thousand 
and one directions is rendered — all coming as a 
direct result of the breeding, feeding and raising 
of farm stock on the farms of the country. 

The volume herewith presented abounds in help- 
ful suggestions and valuable information for the 
most successful production of farm stock in all 
the phases of the subject. It is an every-day hand 
book of live stock and contains the best ideas 
gathered from the various authorities and the ex- 
perience of a score of practical men in all depart- 
ments of live stock production. 

C. W. BURKETT. 

New York City, October, 1908. 



Table of Contents 



INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER I Page 

The Breeding of Farm Stock 7 

Man has done much — Principles that govern breed- 
ing — Where selection conies in — How selection is 
worked — Get rid of the scrubs — Where live stock 
pays — How to start your herd — Never use a grade 
sire — More breeding terms — A wise plan for build- 
ing up. 

CHAPTER II 

The Feeding of Animals 19 

The principles of feeding — Nutritive ratio — Feed- 
ing standards — A balanced ratio — Making the 
ration — Each feed carries its own value — The idea 
is to supply what is needed — Easy to swap feeds — 
Use judgment in purchasing feeds — Folly of bury- 
ing feed in the ground. 

CHAPTER III 
Horses 43 

CHAPTER IV 
Breeds of Horses 46 

CHAPTER V 

Horse Breeding 60 

Selecting of good heavy horses — Conformation of 
the draft horse — The breed for market. 

CHAPTER VI 

Feeding the Horse 68 

Make the feeds fit the needs — Roughage feeds for 
horses — Grain feeds for horses — Watering the horse. 

CHAPTER VII 
The Care and Management of Horses .... 78 

The management of stallions — Breaking the colt on 
the farm — Winter care of farm horses — Preparing 
teams for work — The mare and the foal 



Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII Page 

The Diseases of the Horse 87 

Recognizing and distinguishing diseases — Some com- 
mon diseases— Lock-jaw — Pneumonia — Heaves — 
Indigestion — Colic — Constipation — Worms — Glan- 
ders- — Lameness — The best of all treatments. 

CHAPTER IX 
The Mule 98 

Selection of the jack — Best time for breeding — The 
burro — Mule industry — Best time to breed mares — 
Hinnies — Market classes— Feeding mules. 

CHAPTER X 
Cattle ....,..-. 113 

CHAPTER XI 
Breeds of Cattle 116 

CHAPTER XII 

The Business of Dairying 141 

Dairy farming— Co-operative breeding — Feeding the 
dairy cow^Handling the herd for market milk — 
Protect dairy cows from flies — Classifying milk for 
market purposes — Care of milk on the farm^Mak- 
ing cheese at home — Keeping up the milk flow — 
Alfalfa feed for dairy cows — Cow feeding when pas- 
ture is short — Feeding dairy cows in winter — Dairy- 
ing, a balance in fertility — What the dairyman 
should be. 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Business of Beef Making 189 

Learn to judge cattle — Baby beef — Shelter — Finish- 
ing steers in the spring — Fattening steers in summer 
— Beef cattle in autumn — Swine feeding after 
cattle — Feeding inferior corn to cattle — Fattening 
cattle in late fall. 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Care and Management of Cattle . . . 215 
Rearing calves on skimmed milk — Feeding the dairy 
calf — Feeding milk in good condition — Amount of 
milk for calves — Care of calves after weaning — 
Wintering young cattle successfully — Supplemen- 
tary cattle feeds. 

CHAPTER XV 

The Diseases of Cattle 228 

Some common diseases. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 

CHAPTER XVI Page 

Sheep = . 238 

CHAPTER XVII 
Breeds of Sheep 241 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Sheep Feeding 254 

Roots always fine for sheep — Let sufficient grain be 
used — Choice must be exercised. 

CHAPTER XIX 
The Care and Management of Sheep .... 260 
Weaning of lambs — Sheep during the lambing 
season — Breeding ewes in winter — Feeding pregnant 
ewes — Stock rams in summer^Shear sheep early — 
Handling wool — Storing wool — Raising sheep for 
wool alone. 

CHAPTER XX 

The Diseases of Sheep 283 

Some common diseases.- 

CHAPTER XXI 
Swine 289 

The raortgage lifter — -Filling swine orders by mail. 

CHAPTER XXII 
Breeds of Swine 292 

CHAPTER XXIII 
Feeding Hogs 307 

Pasture for hogs — Cooked and uncooked foods — 
Whole and ground grains — Wet or dry feed — Grain 
feeds. 

CHAPTER XXIV 
The Care and Management of Swine .... 314 
When the sow has pigs — Weaning pigs — Pigs from 
weaning until fattening — ■ Care of sow and pig — ■ 
Feeding skimmed milk — Feeding brood sows — 
Brood sows in winter — Selecting and caring for 
boars — Pasture cheap feed for swine — Alfalfa hay 
for hogs — Hogging off grain — Pasture for hogs — 
The popular type of hogs — Hogs for profit. 

CHAPTER XXV 

The Diseases of Swine 345 

Correctives for swine — Important diseases largely 
infectious — Common disease of the hog — Where 
improvement is needed. 



INTRODUCTION 
FARM STOCK 

The progress that a nation is making can, with 
reasonable accuracy, be measured by the kind of 
live stock it raises. Poor people and poor stock 
usually go together. The most prosperous nations 
of the earth get a large share of their wealth by 
raising improved stock. This is the story the 
world over. Wherever agriculture is really suc- 
cessful and the people prosperous, the raising of 
live stock is a fixed feature of that agriculture. 
While it is true that many special lines of agri- 
culture are extremely prosperous with no live stock 
connected with them, still, as a general rule, live 
stock are necessary to use up the roughage mate- 
rials of the farm, thus bringing into profit a vast 
amount of food material that otherwise would 
be lost. 

The history of farming tells in no uncertain 
terms that where live stock have not been appre- 
ciated, fertile lands cannot be maintained. Its 
admonition is to get live stock; to get all kinds of 
farm stock; to sell your crops through them. Its 
mark is against any single line of farming, because 
such means inefiiciency, soil depletion and worn- 
out land. The cotton farmer needs cattle, sheep 
and hogs to consume his cowpea forage, his clover 
forage, and the corn forage that were produced 
as a part of the crop system to maintain the cot- 
ton lands. The wheat farmer needs live stock for 
a proper utilization of straw and clover and alfalfa 
that are a part of good wheat farming. The corn 



2 FARM STOCK 

farmer needs hogs and cattle to consume the grain 
and stover and the rotation crops, that his lands 
may remain fertile and his farming plant be made 
better. 

Humus and manure must be had. They may 
come from green crops or from city stables, but 
their use must never be ignored, else the time 




GOOD FEED — THEN GOOD CATTLE 

You can stock your farm with good cattle, but if good feed 
is not provided you will not get very far in the business. 

will come suddenly when neither fertilizers nor 
tillage will avail and when the land will be thrown 
back on nature for restoration and the renewal 
of life. When correct farming is practiced, crop 
rotation is renewed, diversified farming follows, 
live stock are restored to the farm and the land 
becomes fertile and the farm productive. 
The old saying that runs: 



INTRODUCTION 3 

"No grass, no cattle; 
No cattle, no manure; 
No manure, no grass," 

applies to every American farm today. The cry 
on the great majority of farms is for more manure 
and for better preserved manure that shall be 
applied to the soil more intelligently and more 
thoughtfully than is now the case. 

Just go into any old section of the country — ■ 
into New England if you please. There you will 
find many deserted homes and abandoned farms. 
Why ? Because the fertility was sold and not re- 
placed. It was sent away from the farms in bushel 
baskets, in baled bundles, in cotton sacks — by the 
pound, by the bushel and by the ton. Go into the 
South — into the land blessed in every way beyond 
measure. You find impoverished soils; you see 
worn-out fi^elds, gullied and wrinkled and cast 
aside. The fat of the land was gathered up and 
shipped away in cotton, in tobacco, in corn, and 
none was returned to take its place. The humus 
of the soil was used up and burned by one-horse 
plows and shallow working tools and the land was 
bereft of its powers of high production. 

Go into any of the older parts of the country — 
go even into the West^ into the newest settlements. 
You find depleted soils, farms rendering their 
owners a bare subsistence. Why is this all so 
true? Because the soil robber in every instance 
has been present, the farm stock have been 
shunned, the fertility has been taken away and the 
lands have been reduced to the lowest point of 
production. 

All of the trouble has been due to a disregard 
of the place and importance of live stock. Farm 



4 FARM STOCK 

Stock will remake old lands and maintain good 
lands. Let your farm be a factory — a farm fac- 
tory — where most of the crops raised shall be 
consumed as food for live stock, that finished prod- 
ucts may be made and as such be sold rather than 
as raw materials, in which form they were secured. 
These things it means: That there shall be diver- 
sity in crops; that more live stock shall be bred 




DAIRY CATTLE AT PASTURE 

As the country grows older and more thickly populated 
the number of dairy cows will increase, for the reason that 
a larger quantity of human food is secured than through an 
equal expenditure of raw materials fed to any other class of 
farm animals. 

and fed on the factory farm; that the entire plant 
shall be managed as a business enterprise of the 
largest magnitude. 

Farm stock, then, have an essential bearing on 
the profits of the farm. They stand for increased 
fertility of the land. They call for the constant 
rotation of crops, not only better to feed the stock, 
but better to help the land. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

Farm stock consume many kindg of cheap 
feeds that are raised on the farm. If sold on the 
open market, these would seldom bring in enough 
to cover the cost of transportation to market. 
Therefore, farm animals are profitable machines 
for using inferior cheap products and converting 
them into wholesome, nutritious, animal food. 
They materiall}^ minimize, also, the cost of mar- 
keting from farm to city or other place of con- 
sumption. A ton of corn stover, wheat straw, or 
corn, is marketed far more cheaply in the form 
of meat, butter or cheese than if transported by 
wagon to the place of sale. Not only is the cost 
of tra^isportation by means of live stock reduced 
to a minimum, but a market is thus secured for 
even the bulkiest of foods. 

Farm stock have an important bearing on the man- 
ag'ement of farm labor. They call for a high type 
of labor, give this labor regular employment and 
keep farm help interested in all that is to be done. 

Farm stock have a marked influence in the pro- 
motion of industry in all rural communities. The 
most settled people in farming, the most educated 
class of farmers, the most prosperous people en- 
gaged in agriculture, are those engaged in some 
one or more lines of live stock. - 

Finally, farm stock greatly influence the mental 
capacity, caliber and character of the men dealing 
with them, not only because a balanced sort of 
food supply is provided, but the close, intimate 
touch that farm stock invite, secures the highest 
mark in character, industry and intelligence. It 
is on the farm, in touch with farm stock and in 
contact with farm animals, that are fashioned vrg- 
orous bodies, clear brains, steady nerves, self- 
reliance, character and sympathy. 




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• CHAPTER I. 

The Breeding of Farm Stock 

The average value of farm animals in the United 
States is not high; while individual animals noted 
for their superior work and performance command 
immense prices, the vast majority of farm stock 
is not particularly good. How to raise the yearly 
performance of the dairy cow, the regular effi- 
ciency of a farm horse, a larger quantity of beef 
in the beef cow and quicker maturity and higher 
quality in the hog are all pertinent questions with 
us now, as they have been in the past. These are 
the problems that American farmers will need to 
solve in future years. Of course feeding will do 
much in improving the quantity and quality of the 
animal products, but the underlying principle in 
efficiency, the fundamental factor in animal pro- 
duction, is good stock. Blood pays in animals as 
it shows itself in men. There has been a constant 
improvement from the original low strains to the 
modern individuals. 

MAN HAS DONE MUCH 

During hundreds of years farm animals have 
been adapting themselves to the various environ- 
ments in which they have been placed. By man's 
help in selecting out those best fitted, results con- 
stantly better have been secured. Consequently 
farm animals today are of a much higher grade 
than they were a century ago. Way back ten 
centuries ago or twenty-five centuries ago there 

7 



8 FARM STOCK 

was no great demand made upon farm animals. 
The cow had no master. All she was interested 
in was the getting just enough of food for herself 
and to provide enough milk for her offspring. If 
her hair was long and shaggy, it better protected 
her body from cold and inclement weather. If 
her horns were sharp, they gave her better pro- 
tection and more certain defense. She had no 
need of a large udder; that need came only after 
man had found it to be useful, satisfying and 
nourishing. The primitive hog was naturally 
coarse and ferocious and easily angered, because 
his protection lay in those directions. He needed 
a long limb, because he could more easily escape 
when the foe was stronger than himself. The 
longer his snout the better he could root for roots, 
and worms were good to his palate, and wholesome 
medicine. If his hide was tough and thic!:, he 
could the better stand the cold, the thorns or the 
enemy's tooth; and the stronger his tusk, the bet- 
ter able he was to win the fight. 

After man took a hand in the rearing of farm 
animals these things quickly underwent a change. 
Man brought better food; he gave better shelter; 
he looked after their pains and troubles; and they 
responded by growing more rapidly. Less effort 
was required to care for themselves; so they just 
naturally put on more flesh or produced more milk. 
Our fathers who had charge of this breeding and 
improvement had learned early of some funda- 
mental principles of breeding and improvement 
that they used to good advantage. They made the 
best of them; they studied all the processes in- 
volved and joined their practices with what sug- 
gested better results. 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 9 

THE PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN 
BREEDING 

Now the fundamental principles that govern 
feeding and improvement are : First, heredity ; and 
second, variation. Upon these two you must build 
your structure; but you must furnish it and 
beautify it by selection. Heredity is the law that 
like produces like. Variation is the law that works 




A REAL RAZOR-BACK 

There is not much profit in this kind of hog". His place 
is in the museum alongside of the cradle, the flail" and the 
spinning-wheel. 

to produce new things. Heredity is the law of 
uniformity. Variation is the law of change. 
Heredity is satisfied with what now exists. Va- 
riation goes out to explore — to seek new paths and 
new fields. The animal breeder builds upon the 
present heredity, but he courts variation and urges 
it to seek new findings. If these are to his liking, 



10 FARM STOCK 

he seizes them as his own, attaches them to the 
old heredity and builds the new structure higher 
and better. The work is now to fix the new acqui- 
sition and to make it a part of the building mate- 
rial. Variation all the while is allowed free range 
that it may gather in new discoveries for further 
improvement and use. We let heredity hold, keep 
and guard the values of the best fitted animals, 
but we call in variation to improve them. 

WHERE SELECTION COMES IN 

But where is selection? If its role is so im- 
portant, why don't we see it on the stage? We 
do, if nothing in the play is struck out. Selection 
is man's part of the drama. It is his work to de- 
cide what new things that variation has found 
shall be held, what new ones shall be cast aside, 
and at what point a new acquisition shall be fixed 
as a part of the old stock. In beginning his breed- 
ing operations, it was the breeder's duty to as- 
certain what classes and individuals already had 
progressed furthest in the line in which he was 
interested. Every breeder has been seeking some 
special end. By looking over the field he was able, 
if he was on to his job, to get some individuals 
peculiarly adapted already in the direction he was 
going. 

HOW SELECTION IS WORKED 

So if it was milk, the wise breeder sought the 
breed and type that had longest been trained and 
bred and had become most efficient in the produc- 
tion of milk. When beef was wanted, he sought 
out those breeds that had been bred most wisely and 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 



II 



trained most carefully to deposit meat upon the 
back. When he was after pork, he chose those 
breeds longest selected to produce a large quantity 
of meat and fat at the least expenditure of effort 
and food. In every case he rejected the little-doer 
and the scrub. Just as he did not expect to do 
good tillage on his soils by means of a wooden 
plow nor to travel fast when an old-time engine 




GRADE MERINOS ON THE RANGE 

The Grade Merino has for a long time been popular on the 
sheep ranges of the West. 



was used, so he did not expect to profit from live 
stock grown from scrubs. All these are equally 
out of date. 

You are familiar with the highly specialized 
breeding operations with dogs; some have been 
bred and developed and trained as watch dogs, 
others as hunters, others as pointers and setters, 
and others in a score of other directions, peculiarly 
and specially, adapted for some particular work. 



12 FARM STOCK 

Now that same force and power applies to hogs 
and cattle. 

GET RID OF SCRUBS 

The thing to do is to rid yourself of the scrubs 
and poor producing individuals, because these bring 
you only meager profits. I know that occasionally 
an exceptional scrub cow pays in a dairy, but some- 
where back in her breeding is improved blood; 
something responsible for the result. 

WHEN LIVE STOCK PAYS 

Live stock pays only where you find well-bred 
animals; this is the fundamental idea of live stock 
management. If your beef business or dairy busi- 
ness does not pay today, you are making a mistake 
by condemning feed stufTs, lands, markets or sec- 
tions before you have carefully considered the ani- 
mal that works for you. Choose first the line, then 
the breed, and to these other things will be added. 

But high-class, special bred animals are expen- 
sive ; and I am not going to suggest that you start 
with pure-bred animals. If you have money, and 
are acquainted with the principles of breeding, it 
will pay you to do this. But if you know little 
about the care and attention required for pure- 
bred, highly trained farm animals, j^our first need 
will be to know how to care and tend such indi- 
viduals before you become their owner. 

HOW TO START YOUR HERD 

I suggest, therefore, that you select for your 
breeding herd or flock, the better grade of indi- 
viduals that possess fairly good breeding, and such 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 1 3 

as possess those qualities as you desire when your 
flock or herd shall be highly improved. You are 
to use, however, for the purpose of improvement, 
the best pure-bred males that can be obtained. For 
the male is half or more. There must be no mon- 
grel or questionable blood in his veins. He must 
be no cross-bred individual. He must come from 
no two breeds, even though both are pure breeds 
with long lines of ancestors back of them. Real 
success comes only from sticking fast to one line 
of blood. Like begets like, you know. To trifle 
with this principle is to end in your destruction. 
You may have the best motives, but you will lose. 
Nature works without sentiment, is heartless, and 
her only reason for doing things is law; and from 
this law she deviates not, nor does she ever stop. 
Like the brook that goes on forever or until the 
waters are no more, so does the fundamental law 
of breeding govern and control both the improve- 
ment and deterioration without hindrance or varia- 
tion. 

NEVER USE A GRADE SIRE 

If you are a young breeder, do not make this 
mistake of choosing a grade sire or an inferior 
pure-bred, because such an animal may cost less 
than a pure-bred one. If you do, instead of breed- 
ing up to improvement, you will breed down to 
inferiority and regret. Use a male of strong pre- 
potency — one that possesses rich quality, high 
character, and then your herd or flock can be 
brought to quick productiveness in a short time. 
But your herd or flock can be maintained at that 
point only by the continued use of males of su- 
perior breeding. Use for a single generation an 
inferior sire and a backward turn will be made. 




14 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 1 5 

MORE BREEDING TERMS 

Prepotency — We are now confronted with some 
new terms in breeding. The term prepotency re- 
fers simply to that quahty of an individual that 
enables his characters to be transmitted to his off- 
spring. In one sense it stands for lineage and 
purity. If performance and production be back 
of lineage and purity — performance and produc- 
tion of the right kind — then that prepotent indi- 
vidual can never be measured by words or money. 
His worth transcends down into ten thousand in- 
dividuals giving for all time the sort of character 
you are seeking; and admitting of the results that 
have been your aim. 

Cross-breeding has its part to play, but within 
prescribed limits. For breeding purposes — that is 
to secure breeding animals — cross-breeding should 
scarcely or never enter unless some master mind is 
at hand to direct and control. 

Cross-Breeding — Cross-breeding is commonly 
employed in the production of meat. A cross be- 
tween two beef breeds or two meat classes of hogs 
seems to increase the total quantity of meat and 
also to hasten maturity. But in this case only 
should the average breeder call this practice into 
use. 

Inbreeding — Inbreeding has been employed from 
the very beginning of time. It is a delicate 
method of transmitting characters. Unless you 
are proficient in the art and clearly see the good 
points and the bad points in the two individuals 
to be mated, unless you are able to look ahead and 
picture in your mind the result of this commingling 
of blood, you had better leave it alone. Just as 
cross-breeding induces coarseness, increases the 




16 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 



17 



size and vigor, so does inbreeding act; but, how- 
ever, in the opposite way. Inbreeding practiced 
to any extent tends to decrease the size of the 
individual, leads to refinement and quality, but 
tends to lessen the vigor. In fixing a type or 
breed this method can be employed with good re- 
sults. The early founders of each breed employed 
it to its fullest extent. You should remember that 
in-and-inbreeding makes heredity more powerful; 
and inasmuch as heredity is just as much interested 
in transmitting undesirable qualities as desirable 
qualities, to intensify by an inbreeding is to affect 
the undesirable qualities as well as the desirable 
qualities. Consequently, you must expect when 
in-and-inbreeding is practiced, to see each and 
every character duly weighted in the progeny. 

Your safety lies in mating only such individuals 
as possess the undesirable qualities in a very minor 
way. Let them be conspicuous and you are lost. 
For the average breeder the use of breeding stock 
of individuals not closely related is the safest plan 
to follow. Leave this delicate art, in this treach- 
erous course, to those who have superior knowledge 
and unlimited means. Be content with the ordi- 
nary methods until you have learned some of the 
secrets of an intricate breeding business. 

A WISE PLAN FOR BUILDING UP 

The matter of greatest importance to you is this : 
You can increase the efficiency, the worth and the 
production of your flock or herd. To do this, rid 
yourself of those animals that are not very produc- 
tive. You have them in your dairy herd — the scales 
and the Babcock test will point them out ; you have 
them in your swine herd — the number of offspring 



15 FARM STOCK 

to each litter, their size and vigor are all that you 
need for your information; you have them in your 
flock of sheep — the fleece, the individuals that tend 
to sickness and the slow maturity condemn them- 
selves in your sight. 

After you have discarded these undesirable in- 
dividuals, be they lo or 50 per cent, concentrate 
your energy upon the remaining ones, giving them 
more abundantly of food and care; and what is 
saved turn in the direction of superior males to 
head the flock or herd. It will now be but a short 
time until your discarded numbers will have been 
replaced by individuals of superior breed, better 
adapted to your special line, more able to bring re- 
munerative returns and more fitted for your en- 
vironments and conditions. Employ these few 
principles in your breeding operations in the future 
and the richest sort of reward you have a full right 
to expect. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Feeding of Animals 

It has been since the study of feeding principles 
has come into use and favor that the greatest suc- 
cess has been reached in the feeding of the various 
classes of farm animals. Our fathers thought it 
enough to supply food freely and abundantly; they 
did not know that there Avere well-defined prin- 
ciples upon which successful feeding rests. In 
fact, it has only been in recent years that any care- 
ful study has been made of the composition of 
plants and animals, and an attempt to correlate one 
with the other. Thanks to our scientists and ex- 
periment stations, we now have the mist cleared 
away and we can feed our various animals feeds 
that serve the purpose best and at a time when 
mostj needed. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

As a result of this investigation there are certain 
well-defined principles that must always be consid- 
ered if the most effective methods are to be put in 
operation in order that the best results may be se- 
cured. The first thing that we are to bear in mind 
is that plants contain many classes of ingredients. 
In the same sense that a piece of meat contains 
blood, fat, lean flesh, bone and other products, so 
plants are found to contain several kinds of ma- 
terials. 

Roughly speaking, we can divide a plant, or in 
other words a feeding stuff, into five groups of 




20 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 21 

constituents or ingredients. The first group we 
call the ash or the mineral elements. You know 
that plants contain mineral materials ; the ashes 
themselves are the evidence of that fact. A stalk 
of corn or a tree develops until it reaches its ma- 
turity; then decay sets in, and back to earth and 
air go the elements, or man gathers in the 
product, uses it as fuel or for consumption in some 
other w^ay. If burnt, the ash material is left be- 
hind and this is gathered up and returned to the 
fields, thereby supplying the needed fertilizing ele- 
ment that originally came out of the soil brought 
up by plant or tree. 

Now animals require mineral materials. Bones 
are largely made of them — all of which come out of 
the soil. First the mineral compounds are dis- 
solved in the soil and carried into the plant by the 
sap and distributed where needed most. It now 
enters into the w^ork of plant building. Animals 
can usually get along without ash or mineral ma- 
terials. Our plants ordinarily contain enough to 
supply all the needs of the body, exceptions, per- 
haps, being the two elements — sodium and chlorine, 
which we know as common salt. 

As our foods are commonly prepared for the 
table, mineral elements are frequently lacking in 
them. We take the bran of the wheat giving tiie 
ash material larg-ely (because deposited in the 
bran) to our pigs and calves. We take the flour, 
largely deficient in mineral materials, make it into 
bread, feed it to our children and wonder why their 
bones are not strong and their teeth not good. There 
has been a deficiency of ash material and this sup- 
ply could be furnished only by means of the food 
set on the table. 



22 FARM STOCK 

Water — You know how important water is to a 
plant or an animal. Neither would survive very 
long without this wholesome, life-giving influence 
and agent. The water is sucked in by means of 
the tiny, fibrous roots of the plant. It goes up 
through cell by cell, carrying with it the mineral 
elements in solution. As it passes along it gives 
over to the plant the soil foods and passes out into 
the air as vapor. For the time being its mission 




ROUGH FEEDERS 

Poor stock and poor feed, without exception, mean poor 
farming. 

is finished. There is, therefore, a constant current 
of water passing through the plant. 

When plants are young, green and tender they 
contain a great quantity of water, but when har- 
vested or when old, the water content becomes ma- 
terially decreased, in some cases being very small 
indeed. Consequently, when animals are given dry 
food or dry forage they get an insufficient quantity 
of water; unless supplied in some other way they 
would perish. So long as on green pastures, gath- 
ering much of their food in the night time when 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 23 

the dew is on the leaf and grass blade, they can 
about supply their needs; but otherwise the water- 
ing trough is essential to supply this need. 

Carbohydrates — But ash and water little concern 
the feeder. It is three other groups that cause the 
trouble and are conducive to loss or gain. These 
groups are carbohydrates, fat and protein. The 
carbohydrates compose the larger part of the 
rough and coarse materials. This group is known 
as the heat and fat formers. When taken into the 
body they supply the materials that keep up the 
heat of the body, furnish the energy to keep mo- 
tion and activity going; and, if there is a surplus, 
it is stored in the body as fatty tissue. 

This important group is composed of three ele- 
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen 
and hydrogen come out of the ground as water. 
The carbon comes out of the air, combined with 
oxygen, known in this form as carbonic acid gas. 
It is exactly the same material that you and I and 
all animals breathe off with every passing breath. 
It is a broken-down tissue, the basis of which is 
carbon. 

Now what is waste for the animal is food for 
the plant, so that the carbon moving about freely 
in the atmosphere, although in a combined form 
with oxygen, enters through the little mouths on 
the under sides of the leaves into the cells and joins 
the tiny molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, and 
becomes a grain of starch. This starch is now 
manufactured: Unless used in the making of some 
other organic compound, it will be available for the 
plant itself or the animal. The starch is very easily 
changed into sugar ; in this way it is easily carried 
to all parts of the plant. 



24 



FARM STOCK 



Fat — The processes of plant growth are still 
shrouded in mystery and always will be until the 
secrets underlynig life itself are learned, if they 
ever are; hence, a complete statement of these 
chemical changes will not be attempted here. We 




WEANING-TIME 

When the pigs are weaned, either let them have the run 
of g-ood pasture or plenty of slop. Weaning pigs ought not to 
be an abrupt affair either. 

know, however, that fat, called the oil of plants, or 
the fat of the animal, is composed of the same three 
elements that compose the carbohydrates — carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. The only difference lies in 
the fact that a great deal more is stored in the fat 
compounds than those of the carbohydrates. This 
explains why fat is more effective in the production 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 2.5 

of heat and energy than are the carbohydrates. It 
is more concentrated in fact. Our scientific men 
tell us that a pound of fat contains 2.5 times as 
much heat and fat-making ability as a pound of 
carbohydrates. For practical purposes both groups 
can be used together, but for purposes of lubrica- 
tion and insistent demands both fat and carbo- 
hydrates are essential to the life of the animal. 

Protein — The last group that concerns the feeder 
is the protein of the feeding stuff. In addition to 
the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen found in fats 
and carbohydrates, nitrogen and sulphur are found 
also in protein; the contribution changing the 
character entirely. This protein is the basis of 
protoplasm. Around it is centered the life of the 
plant and animal. The term is used simply to de- 
scribe the materials that, when taken into the body, 
repair the wears and tears. It supplies and keeps 
up the blood, the brain, the tendons, the flesh, the 
internal organs, the skin, etc. In fact, it is found 
in all parts of plants or animals; for this reason 
protein has been called the most important con- 
stituent of a feeding stuff. 

NUTRITIVE RATIO 

With this classification we are now able properly 
to combine feeds so as to get just what is neces- 
sary to supply the daily needs of any special class 
of animal fed for distinct purposes. In compound- 
ing rations the ash and water can be left out of 
consideration of ration making. The three groups 
then to consider are protein, the fats and the car- 
bohydrates. If we know just how much protein 
ought to be given daily, it is not a difficult matter, 
providing the feeds available are of the right kind. 
Thanks again to our scientific men these facts have 




26 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 27' 

been determined. Take pasture grass for instance, 
the great universal farm animal food in America. 
It has been analyzed and we know just how many 
pounds of protein, of carbohydrates and of fat are 
digested in each lOO pounds. 

Let me add here that the digestibility is impor- 
tant also because not all of the food taken into the 
body is digestible — just a part of it; sometimes 90^ 
per cent, sometimes 75 per cent, sometimes 50 per 
cent, and with some feeds as little as 25 per cent 
is digestible. Hence, with every feeding stuff a 
part is lost and wasted, therefore serves no con- 
tribution to the nutriment of the body. In the 
case of pasture grass, you know by experience 
that animals are healthy and perform their best 
service when feeding freely on it. It is a balanced 
food in itself. In other words, it contains protein, 
carbohydrates and fat in sufficient quantities and 
in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the 
animal. 

In 100 pounds of pasture grass there are 2^ 
pounds of digestible protein, 10.2 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates and .5 of a pound of 
digestible fat. In other words, for each pound 
of digestible protein we have about five pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates and fat. For every time 
one pound of protein is supplied to furnish flesh 
and muscles, about five pounds of carbohydrates 
and fat are supplied to furnish heat, energy and 
fat. This gives rise, therefore, to the term nutri- 
tive ratio. It indicates the relative proportion of 
the muscle makers to the fat and heat makers. 

FEEDING STANDARDS 

The attempt has been made to determine the 
amount of each constituent that ought to be given 



28 FARM STOCK 

to an animal each day. For instance, a dairy cow 
giving a certain quantity of milk requires in her 
food each day a certain amount of protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fat. For a horse doing heavy farm 
work a different ration would be required and the 
constituents in different proportions. If maximum 
results are to be secured, a different standard for 
young calves is necessary than for fattening steers ; 
and a different ration for young pigs than for ma- 
ture hogs ready for the block. Of course, feeding 
standards are to be taken only as guides to point 
out the way. They are not specifics nor receipts. 

Corn, for instance, is the great stock feed in 
America. It is known as a starch or carbohydrate 
food. It produces fat, but not muscle, hence it is 
not a good feed for young stock or for milk cows, 
because these animals require feeds rich in protein 
for the muscle-making materials. It is always well 
to feed a fattening hog an abundance of corn, but 
there is so little protein in corn that even when fat 
is the end sought, the best results are not always 
obtained. The mixing of corn with other feeds 
often brings better results. Our most progressive 
hog growers now combine green alfalfa and clover 
with the grain from the cornfield. If succulent 
pastures are not available, the hay is hauled out 
that protein may be given in addition to the starch 
of the corn. And if hay be not available, a slaugh- 
tering-house product, like tankage, or oil meal, or 
some other carrier extremely and exceedingly rich 
in nitrogen and protein is mixed with the corn. 

In just the same way cottonseed meal is an illy- 
balanced food. It contains too much protein. It 
lacks the carbohydrates. When fed abundantly to 
cattle, protein is wasted. Consequently, for the 
grain part of a ration corn and cottonseed meal 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 29 

blend well together. One is rich in starch, the 
other in protein. The two meet on middle ground 
and supply both materials without waste of one or 
the other and both are supplied with neglect for 
neither. 

THE BALANCED RATION 

These differences existing among the different 
feeds give rise to the balanced ration. No single 
food suffices unless it be pasture grass. Conse- 
quently, the farmer knows that when he feeds a va- 
riety of food he gets the best results. He does not 
need to weigh each pound of food given after he 
has become schooled in the practice of feeding 
farm animals. For all practical purposes, with a 
little thinking and figuring, he can approximately 
estimate the kinds and amounts of the different 
grains and roughage materials that he ought to feed 
each day so as to give his stock the right nutrients 
in the proper proportions. 

He would do wrong to feed corn and corn stover 
and timothy hay. This mixture is bad for the rea- 
son that it carries but one line of food constituents. 
It runs to the carbohydrate class. Likewise cotton- 
seed meal, linseed meal and gluten meal combined 
and fed in conjunction with clover and alfalfa 
would be undesirable, because they run in the other 
direction and supply an overabundance of protein, 
with too little, in fact with very little, of the 
carbohydrates and fats. Every mixture must in- 
clude both classes. Alfalfa and corn, cottonseed 
meal and corn stover, timothy and gluten or linseed 
meal, are all good mixtures for the reason that both 
the "muscle makers" and "fat formers" are in- 
cluded. Each of these mixtures can be improved 



30 



FARM STOCK 



by enlarging on the number of feeds, for a variety 
is always to be preferred to a few feeds. 

Plan to have hay and grain, more than a single 
kind of each is better; and in addition give some 
succulent food like roots or ensilage. This secures 
health, much milk and quick gains. 

The chief value of cottonseed meal, for instance, 




u.^^.^^j-^f-'"''^ 







.z."':^':&^>M& ^Ji'Zi'^^'-^^ 



MEMBERS OF A FEEDING SQUAD 

The two larger pigs on the right have been fed corn 
and tankage, while the two smaller ones on the left have 
received corn only. 

rests with protein and fat. Compared with other 
concentrated feeding stuffs cottonseed meal is rich 
in both of these nutrients. But it is low in carbo- 
hydrates. Linseed meal is rich also in protein, 
moderate in quantity of carbohydrates and com- 
pared with cottonseed meal is low in fat. Corn 
meal, while very high in starch, is much lower in 
protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal. It is 
higher in fat than linseed meal, but considerably 
lower than cottonseed meal. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



MAKING THE RATION 



31 



Cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, clover hay and other 
legumes are also rich in protein when compared 
with other roughage materials. They are moder- 
ate in carbohydrates, and, compared with corn or 
cottonseed meal or linseed meal, are low in fat. 
Timothy hay, while low in fat and protein, is rel- 
atively high in the carbohydrates. The table fol- 
lowing shows the digestible nutrients of the feeds 
mentioned : 



Digestible Nutrients ii^ 


r 100 Pounds. 




Protein j Carbohydrates 

1 


Fat 


Cottonseed meal 

Linseed oil meal 

Corn meal 


37.0 
30.6 
7.1 
10.8 
10.6 

2.9 
2.0 


16.5 
38.7 
66.1 
38.4 
37.3 
38.1 
43.7 
33.2 


12.6 
2.9 
4.8 


Cowpea hay 


1.5 


Alfalfa hay__ 


1.4 


Clover hay _ _ 


1.8 


Timothy hay 


1.4 


Corn stover 


6 







Great Variation in Feeding Stuffs — From this 
table may be seen the variation of the various nu- 
trients. If one were to feed cottonseed meal, for 
instance, he ought not to feed linseed meal also, but 
seek some other feed that is higher in the nutrient 
that is low in cottonseed meal. He might use any 
of the legume hays, but these legume hays are also 
rich in protein and but moderate in the carbo- 
hydrates. Where a reasonable amount of cotton- 
seed meal is fed, it would be better to use some 
other hay not so rich in protein and higher, if pos- 
sible, in the carbohydrates. Timothy hay and corn 
stover are two such feeds and either is excellent to 
be used with the meal. 



32 



FARM STOCK 



When corn meal can be obtained at a reasonable 
cost per nutrient, corn meal and cottonseed meal 
can be economically used together, the cottonseed 
meal being rich in protein and low in carbohy- 
drates, while the corn meal is high in carbohydrates, 
but low in protein. From this standpoint these two 
feeds make an excellent combination as the grain 
portion of a ration. The objection to using them 
exclusively is in the fact that they are too con- 




IN NEED OF A SQUARE MEAL 

When farm stock are improperly fed, they are unable 
to do efficient work. Wise feeding is an art that every good 
farmer must acquire. 

centrated. Some bulk feed ought to go with this 
combination and, therefore, any of the hays like 
cowpea, alfalfa, clover, timothy or corn stover can 
always be used satisfactorily. 

If the legume hays are fed, less of the cotton- 
seed meal and more of the corn meal should be ad- 
mitted to the ration; and if timothy hay or corn 
stover is used, then more of the cottonseed meal 
and less of the corn meal. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS ^^ 

Since protein contains nitrogen and sulphur, and 
the carbohydrates and fat do not, then it is evident 
that the carbohydrates cannot be used as a substi- 
tute for the protein. Just as nitrogen in a ferti- 
lizer cannot take the place of phosphorus or po- 
tassium, so the carbohydrates and fats cannot take 
the place of the protein. While protein can be sup- 
plied as a provider of carbohydrates and fat, it is 
neither wise nor economical, for the reason that 
protein is an expensive nutrient to obtain. 

The farmer can produce always in abundance his 
carbohydrates. The most common plants grown 
on the farm are, as a rule, rich in the carbohydrates, 
and this class can be supplied at low cost. Unless 
the farmer grows an abundance of legum.es, his 
supply of protein is short, and hence his animals 
are supplied with too "little of this element and they 
suffer. To overcome this shortage he is forced 
to purchase costly meals or grain materials in order 
to overcome the deficiency in common forage crops 
grown over the greater part of the country. 

EACH FEED CARRIES ITS OWN VALUE 

Wise feeding recognizes these facts, and aims to 
supply for each class of animals various kinds of 
feeding stuffs so as to furnish the different con- 
stituents in the proportions in which they are 
needed. 

The following feeds may be mentioned : 

As types of the chief classes furnishing protein: 
Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, wheat bran among 
the grain, and cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, and clover 
hay among the hay crops. 

As furnishing carbohydrates: Timothy hay, 
crab grass, corn stover, corn ensilage, cottonseed 
hulls, orchard grass and wheat straw. 



34 FARM STOCK 

As furnishing fat: Cottonseed meal, goose oil 
meal, corn meal and oats. 

Consider One Feed in Connection with Others — 
But you cannot simply select a feed and use it to 
the best advantage without considering it in con- 
nection with other feeds that you want to use. Take 
cottonseed meal : Suppose you were to select it as 
desirable for dairy or beef cattle. Aside from the 
dietary effect of a single feed, you would soon ob- 
serve that cottonseed meal contains too much pro- 
tein and too much fat, and that the animals would 
soon be in need of carbohydrates. Hence, cotton- 
seed meal as the sole feed would be unsatisfactory. 
With the addition of cottonseed hulls for the 
southern feeder, or of corn stover or timothy hay 
for the northern feeder, the ration would be ma- 
terially improved, since you have now added carbo- 
hydrates. If you use a good deal of cottonseed 
meal, and your supply of corn stover or timothy 
hay is limited, you can further improve the ration 
by adding corn meal or some other hay. If you 
have hulls or timothy hay in abundance and a small 
amount of meal^ you will improve it very greatly 
by using alfalfa hay, cowpea hay or clover hay in 
addition to the other feeds. 

A Proverbial Ration — Here is the proverbial ra- 
tion for work horses : Timothy hay and corn. To 
a certain extent the ration furnishes all of the con- 
stituents, but it does so in a badly balanced form, 
for the reason that you feed too much, of the car- 
bohydrates and not enough of the protein. Con- 
sequently, just as soon as you put your work horses 
on heavy work, they lose in flesh, grow laggy, and 
crave for more corn or feed of some kind. They 
are getting too little protein. You can correct this 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 35 

trouble by feeding a couple pounds daily of cotton- 
seed meal, three or four pounds of wheat bran, or 
six or eight pounds of oats. You will understand 
that the aim is to furnish protein, carbohydrates 
and fat in the right proportions in order to get 
enough of each constituent to supply the needs of 
the body. 




NO WASTE ON THE STOCK FARM 

The hay press has become a necessary affair where hay or 
straw are shipped from the farm. 

THE IDEA IS TO SUPPLY WHAT IS 
NEEDED 

The whole problem of feeding is concerned with 
this delicate art of planning the constituents that 
each animal may get daily what its body requires. 
To do this you must consider the work that each 
animal has to do. A work horse demands a differ- 
ent ration from one doing very light work. A 
young dairy cow producing two gallons of milk 




< 5 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 37 

daily, requires a ration different from one that 
gives four gallons of milk daily. A fat hog weigh- 
ing 250 pounds requires a ration very much differ- 
ent from that for a young beef steer weighing 600 
pounds. 

Every Section Has Good Feeds — It is a signifi- 
cant fact that each section of the country has abun- 
dance of feeding stuffs more or less adapted to its 
need. No section has a monopoly of any class. 
There is a range of forage and grain crops in each 
section sufficiently extensive to admit a moderately 
careful balancing of rations. 

In the South there is an abundance of cotton- 
seed meal and cowpea hay. This section has, in 
fact, more protein than it can use; and there are 
also other feeds, as corn stover, cottonseed hulls 
and cereal hays. The New England farmer is well 
supplied with carbohydrates, but he is short in pro- 
tein, for he neither grows cotton nor flax, and, to 
his misfortune, he never grows a maximum quan- 
tity of clover and alfalfa. He looks to the South 
for meal or to the starch factories of the West for 
the by-products to help him out with protein. The- 
western farmer gets this protein by means of alfalfa 
and by-products of the starch factories, and at the 
same time he has an abundance of carbohydrates 
even more than he can use. The waste that takes 
place in the cornfields each year is indicative of 
this fact. 

EASY TO SWAP FEEDS 

Since transportation is now so easy, an exchange 
of one class for another is easily made, furnishing 
no reason why each section should not have such 
nutrients as it needs to balance properly its stand- 
ard feeding rations. The farmer who has an 




38 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 39 

abundance of timothy and corn, which he is now 
feeding his work horses, can well afford to dispose 
of a part of either or both and expend the entire 
receipts for bran or oats. By so doing he need not 
increase his outlay at all; but he will supply his 
work horses with a more satisfactory ration. 

But there are large quantities of food each year 
going to waste in ever}^ section. In this you will 
not disagree with me if you will but consider the 
thousands and thousands of tons of corn stover 
and cottonseed meal, and the by-products of the 
slaughtering houses that rot and decay each year 
in American farm fields, a quantity of rich ani- 
mal food and of real wealth so vast as to be almost 
beyond estimation. And all this is wasted and 
unutilized each year. Of course, these materials 
help the soil, but they could help the animal first, 
and to the land might go the resulting manure, 
doing the land as much good as the raw animal 
food. 

How long shall we allow this state of affairs to 
exist? Why not stop at this point? Why not be- 
gin a readjustment of your business so that these 
products now wasted may be utilized? 

USE JUDGMENT IN PURCHASING FEEDS 

There is often very poor judgment shown in the 
purchase of feeds. Just think of the great quan- 
tities of timothy and other hays that are each year 
sent into some section to be fed to live stock! It 
is not wise farm management to buy timothy hay, 
and yet this practice prevails in many parts of the 
countr}^ particularly in the South. It is not eco- 
nomical feeding. There Is no special virtue in 
timothy hay, for a feeding stuff is valuable only in 



40 FARM STOCK 

proportion to its ability to furnish protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fat. Why buy timothy hay when it 
is httle better than corn stover as a feed. 
Grow plenty of corn and the legumes and you need 
not bother about timothy hay. 

The good farmer and the wise feeder aims to 
have some legume crop at all times. The western 
farmer can readily grow clover or alfalfa; the 
southern farmer cowpeas, clover or alfalfa; the 
New England farmer clover, and as soon as he 
learns how, he will grow alfalfa and cowpeas. 

Grozv the Legumes — Cowpeas and clovers and 
alfalfa are needed not only to catch nitrogen out 
of the air and store it in the soil so as to maintain 
the fertility of the land and add humus thereto, but 
they are needed for feeding cattle and sheep and 
hogs and horses. Feeding experiments have shown 
that, in feeding value, these three feeds are not 
much less than the feeding value of wheat bran. 

Many farmers who do not grow wheat, yet buy 
wheat bran for the protein, because they look upon 
wheat bran as a valuable feeding stuff. And it is, 
but as well as being good, it is also costly. It takes 
money from your pocket. Still if a man could sow 
ten acres or more each year to a crop of wheat bran, 
and if he could sow the wheat bran just as he can 
now sow cowpeas or alfalfa or clover, and if he 
could get two tons or more of bran per acre, I am 
confident the practice would become general 
throughout the country. And why? Because 
every farmer has learned of the value of wheat 
bran as a feed. But if alfalfa and cowpeas and 
clover are almost equally as good as wheat bran 
for all feeding purposes, why will you refrain from 
growing alfalfa, cowpeas and clover when you can 
get from four to six tons of the former and a ton 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 4I 

and a half to three tons per acre of the latter two 
crops ? 

THE FOLLY OF BURYING FEED IN THE 
GROUND 

There are lots of follies committed in agriculture, 
but there is none greater than that annually made 
when millions and millions of dollars of feed prod- 
ucts are buried in the soil each year as fertilizer, 
examples being cottonseed meal, tankage and dried 
blood. We should aim to get the total profits that 
these feeds possess. They ought to be fed first to 
live stock so as to get the wealth penned up in them, 
in way of milk and meat. And then there is almost 
a similar value in using the resulting manure upon 
the land. It seems to me wise farm management 
to take a dollar and buy first the material for a 
feeding stuff, and afterwards to utilize it as a ma- 
nure. When feeds are buried in the soil year after 
year, no profit is secured at all from the potential 
feeding values stored in them. 

Here is one of the great opportunities of south- 
ern agriculture, and if grasped by the southern 
farmer, millions of dollars could be added to the 
wealth of that great section. To a great extent 
cottonseed meal goes into the soil unutilized year 
after year. It ought to go to cattle first, bring a 
profit by them, then be sent to the soil for a second 
profit that will come from the increased yield from 
crops. 

In the great pork-making sections of the coun- 
try tankage now largely goes unused, yet it has 
been definitely shown that not only is tankage a 
valuable feed product, but when combined with 
corn greatly increases the potential value of that 



42 FARM STOCK 

feeding stuff. How long, oh, how long, shall 
these wasteful methods be practiced? Enough has 
now been said about the feeding proposition — 
about its principles, methods and practices. If you 
would secure the reward, adopt them. And all the 
while remember these facts : Wise feeding is not 
only profitable, but it leads to land improvement; 
not only does it secure meat and milk economically, 
but it increases the efficiency of farm stock; not 
only does it bring immediate, profitable returns, but 
it adds to the potential fertility of the farm. Right, 
wise, skillful feeding makes farming profitable. 



CHAPTER III. 
Horses 

When America was discovered there was not a 
horse to be found. Hence, the Red-man, in his 
meager attempts to bring agriculture into his 
service, lacked a beast of burden to assist him. Al- 
though recent investigations indicate that the 
original horse stock had at one time a home on this 
continent, the horse as we know him came into our 
country from across the waters. To find his 
original home we shall need to go into southern 
Asia where the -tempests rage and man lives only 
with difficulty. 

The horse comes to us not of his own choosing. 
He left his cold and stormy home, not because he 
preferred some place else, but because man claimed 
him, domesticated him, put him into service and 
rode him away. Why the horse preferred these 
vast steppes to warm climates and more luxurious 
vegetation, I do not know. It may be that he felt 
safer there. He could for one thing see his natural 
enemies, the wild beasts, at a greater distance, so 
that escape was more easily accomplished. Nor 
have we any record of the early domestication of 
horses. The time is too far back in history ; before 
words were written or paper made or printing dis- 
covered. Tradition, however, indicates that far 
back in the past the horse was used for purposes of 
war, service and pleasure. 

It is certain, too, that the horse in the early days 
found man, as well as the wild beasts, his natural 
€nemy, for his flesh was not bad at all, and even 

43 




4A 



HORSES 45 

today in Paris and other large European cities not 
a little meat that is consumed is horse flesh. 
We know nothing about the early handling of 
the horse when first subdued; but we can be rea- 
sonably sure that it was not by gentleness, but by 
force, that he submitted to the demands of man. 

Wild horses are still to be found; but their do- 
mesticated kin are now our friend and helper, and 
generously and willingly assist in every work and 
duty which he is called upon to perform. The 
horse has always retained the principal and best 
qualities of his ancestors — speed and strength. 
These are the qualities, which served him once for 
flight, that are now employed in the service of 
man. It is not out of place to honor and caress this 
noble beast, which, sturdier, stronger and fleeter 
than ourselves, is, nevertheless, one of the most 
serviceable and devoted of all domesticated ani- 
mals. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Breeds of Horses 

It is quite impossible to make a ranking list of 
breeds. Even in the same community, under the 
same conditions and environments, many breeds of 
horses are observed, showing that men honestly 
differ in opinion as to the merits and values and 
varieties of horses, as they do in other matters in 
life. It follows, then, in breeding or working, that 
taste, fancy and individual choice will govern in 
the selection of the breed. Following is a brief dis- 
cussion of the breeds common in America, giv- 
ing their chief characteristics and qualities : 

The Thoroughbred was the first breed of horses 
to be definitely established. It comes from Eng- 
land, where it was produced by mingling many dif- 
ferent strains of oriental blood. The modern 
Thoroughbred is thus the oriental horse, developed 
and improved by centuries of breeding and se- 
lection. 

Three oriental horses are mentioned by all au- 
thorities as having contributed most to the forma- 
tion of the modern Thoroughbred; viz., Darley 
Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Arabian, the 
only existing male line from these horses tracing 
their ancestry to Eclipse, Herod and Matchem, re- 
spectively, all from the middle of the eighteenth 
century. As stated by Sanders, however, while 
the oriental horse furnished good material as basis 
for the breeder, the skill of the English and Amer- 
ican breeder has done more than the blood of Ara- 
bian and Barb horses. The Arabian is docile and 

46 



BREEDS OF HORSES 4/ 

possesses great beauty of form, but he is inferior to 
our Thoroughbred in size, height, speed and en- 
durance. Our Thoroughbreds are imported from 
England or are descendants of horses thus imported, 
with an occasional mixture of the Arab or Barb, 
which is not considered as vitiating the pedigree. 
The Thoroughbred has been bred for the race 
course and similar purposes for centuries. In this 



^IJIflSiP 




THREE GOOD FARM -BRED PERCHERONS 

Percheron horses have always been popular in America 
ever since their introduction. The3' are good walkers, quiet 
and heavy enough to perform all operations on the farm 
that call for weight and pulling power. 

long course of breeding, certain defects have crept 
into his make-up which unfit him for farm uses. 
He has become tall, lithe, light and too nervous for 
everyday use. Nevertheless, the Thoroughbred has 
been used in the improvement of all kinds of 
horses. The favorable influence of a cross with a 
Thoroughbred is recognized on every hand. Trot- 
ters have been built largely on Thoroughbred blood 
and this same blood is at the foundation of nearly 
every fine roadster and driving horse in America. 



48 FARM STOCK 

A heavy Thoroughbred makes an excellent cavalry 
horse, general saddle horse or carriage horse. 

The Trotter — There were trotting or ambling 
horses in England 600 years ago, but it was not 
until 1818 that an authentic record of a mile in 
three minutes was made. In 1806 a horse named 
Yankee is said to have trotted in 2.59, but the 
record is doubtful. The aim of the breeder of 
trotters is to secure a fast trotting gait and the 
speed of these horses has beeai gradually increased 
during the past century. 

Naturally this reduction of the time is partly 
due to the use of a lighter vehicle, ball bearings, 
pneumatic tires, improvement of the track, etc., 
but a steady increase of speed has been brought 
about by breeding. The Trotter is essentially an 
offshoot or variety of the Thoroughbred, produced 
from the latter by breeding and selection for the 
possession of a trotting gait. The first known or 
definitely recorded sire of a winner in a trotting 
race was Coriander, son of imported Messenger. 
Several other distinguished sires of trotters de- 
scended from the same Messenger. In fact, not 
until 1837 did a noted trotter appear which did not 
come from Messenger. The Morgan family came 
into existence in 1840, the Clay family in 1850 and 
Rysdyk's Hambletonian in i860. 

Pacers do not constitute as yet a recognized 
breed. Many standard-bred trotters number pacers 
among their progeny. In early days in this coun- 
try, pacers were used largely as saddle horses. 
Later they were put on the track. On the race 
track the pace seems to be a somewhat faster gait 
than the trot. For general driving purposes, how- 
ever, the pacer is inferior to the trotter. The hips 



BREEDS OF HORSES 49 

slope, the shoulders are high and the form is other- 
wise less perfect. Within the past 25 years the 
speed of the pacer has been greatly increased until 
Dan Patch made a mile in i.55>4. 

The American Saddle Horse — The foundation 
stock of this breed was Denmark (a Thorough- 
bred), John Dillard and Tom Hal (Canadian 
horses), and a number of other Thoroughbred and 
Morgan horses. 

Saddle Gaits — To entitle him to registry the sad- 
dle horse must possess five gaits — walk, trot, rack 
and canter, and either the running walk, slow pace 
or fast trot. The rack is also known as the single- 
foot gait. Style is an important feature. Many 
of these horses are good for saddle or driving and 
a few of them have trotted faster than 2.30. The 
hair is silky, mane of medium length, head small, 
ears erect, neck arched, withers narrow, barrel 
round, legs hard and flat with rather small joints. 
The fox trot can be maintained all day and carries 
a horse at the rate of four to six miles an hour. 

The Morgan Horse originated with Justin Mor- 
gan, owned by a man of the same name from West 
Springfield, Mass. The foundation horse of the? 
breed was foaled about 1793 and was claimed to be 
of Thoroughbred descent. A thorough investiga- 
tion by AA'allace and others shows pretty clearly 
that the ancestry of the original Morgan horse is 
unknown. Sherman Morgan was among the 
progeny of this horse, his dam being a Narragan- 
sett pacing mare. He is noted as the sire of Black 
Hawk, the most famous of all the Morgans. The 
Morgan horse is essentially a trotter of small size, 
but active and speedy. Fifty years ago they were 
much more in favor than at present, and were 
widely known from Maine to Iowa. 

















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BREEDS OF HORSES 5 1 

The Hackney originated in northeastern Eng- 
land more than lOO years ago by the careful se- 
lection of carriage mares and the use of Thorough- 
bred sires. The breed was first called Norfolk 
trotters or cobs. The action of the Hackney is 
very high and showy, the leg and feet somewhat 
larger than trotters, the general form rounder and 
less angular, back short and stout, height 14.2 to 
15.3 hands, hindquarters rounded, shoulders slop- 
ing, color chestnut or brown or bay. The knee ac- 
tion is high and the hind legs are always kept under 
the body. The Hackney is essentially a heavy 
harness horse. He is too small for the farmer and 
too slow for racing. His endurance is also not 
great. He is merely a park horse and high step- 
per. Hackneys are bred extensively in Canada and 
in recent years many have been imported into this 
country, especially in New York, to satisfy a fad 
among fashionable society. 

The French Coach Horse was at first called 
Demi-Sang on account of the fact that it was orig- 
inated by crossing the English Thoroughbred on 
native French mares, the latter carrying consider- 
able oriental blood. Toward the end of the eight- 
eenth century the French government undertook 
this work in order to obtain better cavalry re- 
mounts. After the type was fairly well established, 
breeding was continued in the government studs 
and by farmers, under government supervision. 
Thoroughbred stallions are still used occasionall}^ 
so that some French coachers may be self -breeds. 
The French coacher stands higher than the Hack- 
ney, the knee action is not so high and the general 
form more rangy. The weight is 1050 to 1400 
pounds and the color bay, brown or black. The 
type is poorly fixed and it does not breed true. 



52 FARM STOCK 

Some are much coarser than others, which may 
show their Thoroughbred ancestry. In the hands 
of skilled breeders, the French coach horse may 
be used in the production of heavy harness horses 
and for this purpose they have been imported in 
small numbers. It is probable, however, that a 
much better type of this sort can be obtained from 
the American Trotter by selecting the heaviest ani- 
mals. 

The German Coach Horse is a name used to 
cover several breeds of coach horses bred in the 
northern German provinces. The most important 
breeds are the Oldenburg, Hanoverian, East Fries- 
land and East Prussian, the first named being the 
most promising. According to some authorities, 
this type was known in Oldenburg as early as 1608. 
The breed was greatly improved by crossing Thor- 
oughbred stallions on the Oldenburg mares under 
government supervision. This horse is black, 
brown, bay or chestnut in color, 15 to 16% hands 
in height, 1200 to 1500 pounds in weight. The 
legs are strong, but smooth and the carriage of the 
head, neck and tail is graceful. The gait is much 
like that of the French coacher. On the western 
range, German coach horses have produced fine 
grades from native mares, and the breed seems to 
be on the increase in this country. 

The Cleveland Bay is a coach breed which origi- 
nated in England by crossing the Thoroughbred 
upon native mares of the Cleveland district. It is 
noted for coaching and long distance work. The 
color is bay, weight 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, height 16 
to 16.2 hands. The croup is straight, back short, 
thighs strong. The Cleveland bay is adapted for 
pulling heavy loads at considerable speed. He has 
much to recommend him to the farmer. Since the 



BREEDS OF HORSES 



53 



establishment of the stud book in 1884, additional 
speed has been secured by the further admixture 
of Thoroughbred blood. The Yorkshire coach 
horse is very similar to the Cleveland bay and is 
considered by some as a family of the latter. It 
shows more of the Thoroughbred, occasional white 




PLOW HORSES 

In the conquest of American lands, the farm horse has been 
the most conspicuous of all farm animals 



Spots and does not breed as true as the Cleveland 
bay. 

Influence of Thoroughbred — From the above 
discussion of Hght breeds of horses, the immense 
influence of the blood of the Thoroughbred is ap- 
parent. The Thoroughbred has furnished the 
foundation of the Trotter, Saddle Horse, Pacer, 



54 FARM STOCK 

Orlov Trotter, Morgan, Hackney, French, German 
and Yorkshire coach, and Cleveland bay. The ori- 
ental blood is "hot blood." The Thoroughbred and 
its modifications in various modern breeds are 
known as "hot blooded" as contrasted with the 
"cold blooded" draft horses which originated in 
continental Europe. The blood of the Thorough- 
bred is everywhere present in horses which are dis- 
tinguished for speed, courage and endurance. Even 
the Welsh pony carries some oriental blood. 

Draft Type — As the light or "hot blooded" 
horses are all descended, with modification, from 
the Thoroughbred, so the draft or "cold blooded" 
horses are descended from the old black horse of 
Flanders. At the dawn of history this wild black 
horse was found throughout continental Europe. 
In northern Europe the conditions seemed to be 
favorable to the development of large men and large 
horses. By skillful breeding and an occasional 
mixture with oriental or native blood, several heavy 
breeds have been produced from the black horse of 
Europe. Thus from England we have obtained 
the Clydesdale, Shire Horse and Suffolk Punch; 
from France the Percheron and French draft horse; 
and from Belgium the Belgian draft horse or Flem- 
ish horse. 

Before the days of railroads much freighting 
was done by horses through Pennsylvania from the 
seaboard to the Ohio river. For this heavy work 
the Conestoga horse was produced and was at one 
time famous as a draft horse in Pennsylvania. This 
horse was a product of local breeders, based on 
imported heavy horses of unknown blood. The 
Conestoga horse stood i6 to i8^ hands high and 
weighed i,6oo to 1,900 pounds. With the advent o£ 
railroads the breed was allowed to become extinct. 



BREEDS OF HORSES 55 

The Clydesdale originated in Scotland, being- 
first referred to in 171 5. The Black Flemish horse 
and other heavy horses were crossed with the early 
form of the type. At present the type is well fixed 
and the breed is very true and prepotent. The 
color is bay or brown with white markings on 
the face and legs. Other colors, such as gray, 
black and chestnut, sometimes appear. The flanks 
are lighter in color, fading to a dun on the 
belly. Mares weigh 1,500 to 2,000, stallions 1,800 
to 2,200 and the height is 16 to 17 hands. The 
head is long, neck medium, leg broad and fine, 
silky feathering below the knee and hock, 
shoulders sloping. The Clydesdale shows a fast, 
elastic walk and a fairly good trot. The waist is 
sometimes too small, the back too long and the 
feet too flat. In these points much improvement 
has been made of late. The forehead is broad, 
hindquarters well developed, leg joints strong, tail 
well carried. The special merits of the Clydesdale 
are the smooth, clean legs, and the long graceful 
strides. 

Tlie Shire Horse — The black horse of Flanders, 
imported to England and crossed on native heavy 
mares, gave rise to the old war horse or ''great 
horse," which was much in favor as a charger in 
the days of knight-errantry. 

The Shire horse resembles the Clydesdale, but is 
heavier and coarser. The color is black, bay, brown 
or gray; height 16 to 17.2 hands, weight 1,600 to 
2,300 pounds, neck short, nose Roman, shoulder 
straight, body short, deep and round, back broad, 
legs strong with heavy bone and ''feather" extend- 
ing around on the sides. The gait is slower and 
less st3dish than in the Cl3^desdale, but the animal 
is stronger and less likely to be "weedy." The 



56 



FARM STOCK 



shoulders and pasterns are more erect than in the 
Clydesdale and the hair is coarser. 

The Percheron is the national horse of France 
and originated in the district of La Perche. Until 
1883 all draft horses in France were referred to 
indifferently as Norman, Norman-Percheron, Per- 




A TYPICAL PERCHERON STALLION 

This prize-winning Percheron represents the grace, qual- 
ity and high breeding of the draft horse. The Percheron is 
known in every state and county in tlie country. 



cheron or French Draft. In that year the name 
Percheron was adopted. At first two types, the 
light and the heavy, were recognized. The light 
Percheron was most in favor and was used as a 
coach horse. He weighed 1,400 to 1,600 pounds, 
stood about 15.2 hands high and had considerable 
speed as well as strength. The neck was trim, the 



BREEDS OF HORSES 57 

feet well formed and the legs only slightly feath- 
ered. In 1732, many of the oriental horses were 
captured in France from the invading Saracens, 
and this blood, mixed with that of the European 
black horse, yielded the Percheron. Shire horses 
were also imported from England and their blood 
added to the existing mixture. Du Hays in his 
treatise on the Percheron claims an Arabian ances- 
try for this horse. 

The color of the modern Percheron is black, 
gray, or white. He stands i6 to 17.2 hands high, 
and weighs 1,600 to 2,200 pounds. The legs are 
short, blocky and without feather, the hoof is good, 
head small, face straight, neck arched, shoulders 
and hips sloping, body deep, round and broad. The 
Percheron is powerful, but his legs and feet are 
his strong points. He shows his heel in walking, 
and his action is good, but not quite so swinging 
as that of the Clydesdale. The percentage of 
blacks has been increased by the Americans. 
Roans, bays, browns and chestnuts are occasionally 
observed, but probably indicate impure breeding. 
The weak points in the Percheron are lightness of 
leg below the knee and hock, rolling gait in front 
and wide straddling behind. These defects, how- 
ever, are only seen in a certain percentage. For 
breeding, stallions with oblique pasterns should be 
selected. 

Alexander rightly calls attention to the beneficial 
effects which the Percheron has exercised upon 
our native' horses. This horse is by far the most 
popular of all the draft horses, and breeds fairly 
true to type. He is docile, easily kept in condition, 
of good constitution and well adapted to all sorts of 
draft purposes. When crossed on native mares, 
the Percheron produces excellent express, farm, 



58 



FARM STOCK 



draft and general purpose horses, according to 
the size of the mare. ''Where the blood of this 
breed predominates in a district, no other breed 
should be used. Continued breeding in the right 
line is highly advisable and will result in the pro- 
duction of practically pure bred horses of great 
usefulness and value." 

The French Draft has the same ancestry as the 
Percheron and was once included with the latter. 




children's horses 

Thousands of ponies are to be found on American farms. 
While intended for the enjoyment of cliildren, they may be 
made to do much useful work. 



In fact, the breed is now in process of differentia- 
tion from the Percheron and can scarcely be dis- 
tinguished from it. The prevailing colors are 
gray, bay and black. The French Draft is slightly 
heavier than the Percheron and useful for fewer 
purposes, being purely a heavy draft horse. 

The Belgian Draft Horse, or Flemish horse, 
stands nearer than any other breed to the old black 
horse of Flanders. His ancestors were first used 
as war chargers and later for draft purposes. 
Until recently the Belgian Draft horses imported 



BREEDS OF HORSES 59 

into the United States have lacked quality. The 
Percheron and Clydesdale possess more style and 
better action than the Belgian, and are therefore 
more in favor in this country. The Belgian has 
less feather on the legs than the Clydesdale, shorter 
neck, wider breast and larger bod}^ 

The Belgian Draft is the largest of all horses, 
weighing 1,700 to 2,500 pounds. The preferred 
colors are brown, bay and black, with an occasional 
roan or chestnut. They are closer to the ground 
than the Percheron and less trim in appearance. 
The head is large, ears sometimes lopped, neck 
thick, shoulders straight, back short and broad, 
chest deep, legs short and flat, feet large, heel low. 
The defects of the Belgian are clumsy gait, coarse 
neck, sloping croup and too erect pasterns. Atten- 
tion is being given to the correction of these points. 
Belgians are slowly gaining in favor among Ameri- 
can breeders on account of their great power and 
easy keeping qualities. 



CHAPTER V. 
Horse Breeding 

While we have many races and breeds o£ horses, 
we may with all correctness classify them into 
three groups. By continually selecting the heaviest 
animals of a heavy race and giving them such food 
as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft 
horses have been obtained — horses that rear them- 
selves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those 
who see them for the first time. In using for 
propagation the fleetest animals of a fleet and 
noble race and giving to their product an education 
that develops muscles and tendons, and by carefully 
repressing all tendency to lay on fat, breeders are 
obtaining more and more animals of incredible 
speed which on the American race track are taking 
less and less time to cover a certain distance. By 
using the smallest specimens of a race of small 
ponies, breeders have succeeded in producing 
horses no larger than mastiffs. I saw a dwarf 
horse not long ago exhibited at one of our passing 
shows that was slightly less than two feet in height. 
Breeders have also seized and reproduced the 
freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born 
white). 

When the horse was wild he looked after his 
own food, his own protection and his own shelter. 
He naturally made little progress, and what pro- 
gress he did make was of a nature to fit him to his 
conditions and environments of life, rather than 

60 



HORSE BREEDING 6 1 

to fit him to do useful work, or otherwise to con- 
tribute to the pleasure and happiness of his goodly 
friend, man. 

SELECTING TO GET HEAVY HORSES 

With the coming of civilization, however, man 
took the horse in hand and helped him. Inasmuch 
as the horse could more rapidly till the soil, he was 
used for this purpose. An early observation was 
that the heavier the horse the harder work he 
could do and the heavier the load he could draw; 
hence there was an unconscious selection in de- 
veloping animals to do the heavy draft work of 
the world. 

As we have the draft horse today, he possesses 
striking characteristics. By looking at him from 
the front you see that he is wide between the eyes, 
moderately long in face and rather wide between 
the shoulders. If he stands correctly there is be- 
tween his feet the measured distance of another 
hoof. 

A plumb line dropped from the point of his 
shoulder divides the forearm, knee, canon and 
hoof in equal parts, thus insuring an even, regular 
movement of the leg. Stepping around to the 
side, the first observation will be that the neck is 
relatively short, but it is heavy and muscular. It 
blends evenly and smoothly into the shoulders, the 
breast at the bottom, and the withers at the top. 
The shoulder slopes gently upward and, compared 
with the race horse, is rather straight. The back is 
well covered with muscle, is broad and well fleshed, 
with well-covered hips, presenting a view that 
would indicate the back not to be long. The gen- 
eral slope over the hips becomes rather abrupt, for 



62 FARM STOCK 

the hips are well muscled, thus giving force and 
power; for it is from the rear that ability to draw 
comes. The same well-muscled form continues 
about the buttocks and the thighs. Here are shown 
short muscles, but muscles that are large and 
strong. The knees and the hocks should be deep 
and broad and rather large. The usual trouble in 
the hocks, known as curb, is due often to bad con- 
formation. The hock is not wide and deep enough ; 
leverage of muscles to stand the strain and to do 
the hard work demanded of this region of the body 
is not sufficient. 

Special attention should be paid to the feet, for 
unless a horse has strong, well-made feet, he is 
poor material for either field or road work. 

A further observation from the side shows the 
horse to be square or of a rectangular appearance. 
The height from the ground to the withers is 
about the same as the height from the ground to the 
croup. These measurements, in turn, are practi- 
cally the same as the distance from the point of 
the shoulder to the quarter or buttock. Carrying 
these measurements still further, either of them is 
just about two and one-half times the length of 
the head, which in no case should be more than 
three times the width between the eyes. 

These measurements have been rather carefully 
worked out and much of the beauty and ease of 
action and grace and efficiency of this noble ani- 
mal is due to these proportions along the Hue of 
law and order, rather than of casual chance. 

An awkward, ungainly horse is, as a rule, an 
inefficient, little-doing horse. He is awkward and 
ungainly, because his proportions are bad, and as 
a result the work he accomplishes represents the 
minimum quantity. 



HORSE BREEDING 63 

But there is a radical difference in the type be- 
tween draft and speed horses. While the trotting 
horse requires great width between the eyes (and 
it might be added that width between the eyes is 
an absolute beauty in any animal), he is longer in 
face, longer in neck and leaner in appearance. In 
fact, the neck is thin, the chest is very deep, but 
perhaps not so wide as in the case of the draft 
horse. The shoulder is more sloping and longer, 
and there is less muscle at the meeting place of the 






'ij^^^mi' 



FARM TEAM AT WORK 

Quietly and calmly they stand; but whenever needed, the 
farm horse responds willingly and faithfully 

two shoulders. The back is long, but thin and nar- 
row, and slightly fleshed; the hips are prominent, 
the croup quite horizontal, and attached to thin, 
long muscles that speed may be accelerated. The 
buttocks and thighs are slightly covered with flesh, 
but the hock is wide, deep and thick and the feet 
are hard and strong — just as they are with the 
draft horse. The leg and canon bones of the 
speed horse are longer than those of the draft 
horse. Now, why these differences? Each type 
represents a specialty. The speed horse is a poor 



64 FARM STOCK 

working horse, because he lacks conformation ; and 
the draft horse will never win a race on the track 
if competing with special-bred race horses because 
he possesses no qualities of speed. The leg of 
the draft horse is too short, the forearm is too 
short, the shoulders are too upright and the mus- 
cles are too thick and too slow-acting. The speed 
horse possesses the opposite characteristics, which 
are basal features of speed. 

Take a long, thin rubber. You can extend it 
a long way and when released it passes through 
the extended distance quite rapidly. Take this 
same piece of rubber and lap it over itself a few 
times so as to shorten it into one-fourth its original 
length and you get greater power when the rubber 
contracts ; but it acts more slowly and extends itself 
less. That is the way it is with horses. The long- 
legged, long-muscled race horse can reach out and 
cover greater distances than the draft horse because 
of these special features. But these differences in 
type go deeper than mere skin and flesh. The 
skeleton presents these differences even more prom- 
inently than the living flesh. You have but to 
study the skeleton to see the reason and the proof 
of the foregoing explanation of differences between 
the two types. 

Function is based on conformation. You must 
have type and conformation. It is useless to at- 
tempt to press one into the service of the other. 
Farmers too often make the mistake of inter- 
changing type along with other breeding opera- 
tions. The mating of draft with speed types for 
a generation or two and then changing to the car- 
riage type and then back again to either the 
speed or draft type, causes an intermixture of 



HORSE BREEDING 



65 



blood and function that makes a good-for-nothing 
individual. 

Select Your Line of Animals — If it is a large 
draft type, then breed straight to that line. If you 
want lighter horses, do not make the mistake of 
breeding down in size. Rather take individuals of 




A FOUR- YEAR-OLD SHIRE STALLION 

The Shire horse is not so well known as the Percheron, 
but the breed is gaining friends very rapidly. 

some breed that possess already the characteristics 
you want, and improve these by careful selection 
and mating. By so doing you will then get quality, 
an important character for any breed. 

The carriage or coach horse comes in between 
the two extremes of draft and speed. These horses 



66 ■ FARM STOCK 

supply the demand of the general purpose horse, 
although they are not just that, but horses of this 
class are able to do considerable work, and at the 
same time have greater speed characteristics than 
the heavy draft horse. But they are neither speed 
nor draft horses and would be outclassed in either 
case. They do light road work or heavy harness 
work and do it well. They have their work to do 
just as the speed or draft horse has its work to do. 

CONFORMATION OF THE DRAFT HORSE 

Many farmers have attended our state fairs and 
seen modern draft horses on exhibition. The up- 
to-date draft horse is one that stands close to the 
ground, with short legs and broad base. The feet 
are well apart, with space enough for another foot 
of the same size to be placed between them. The 
back of this animal will be somewhat shorter than 
that of the speed horse. It is with the hind legs 
that he propels himself, and thus it can be easily 
seen that, since the collar is oh the shoulder, the 
whole weight of the load is drawn by the back. 
Therefore it must be short, broad and well muscled. 

The shoulder of this horse is long and well 
shaped, so as to give a good base to the collar. It 
should be more nearly perpendicular than that of 
the speed animal. However, sloping shoulders are 
often found in our best draft horses. The hocks 
of this horse will show rather a narrow angle, be- 
cause it is by this that a great leverage is given 
and he is able to move heavy loads. The body is 
massive, low set, ample, very muscular and cylin- 
drical. The horse should have solid, large, broad 
bones and limbs; the latter are well formed and 
properly placed under his body. 



HORSE BREEDING 67 

He should have large, healthy, well-formed 
hoofs, heels well separated, frog strong, healthy 
and quite hard; good physiognomy, plenty of style 
and action, ardor and endurance. He must have 
a short, rather straight pastern in order to do 
the heavy work required of him. His weight 
should be in the neighborhood of a ton. If he 
weighs a little more or a little less, but is good 
otherwise, he will not be long without a purchaser. 
The animal can be of any draft breed. All have 
special characteristics which commend them to their 
admirers. It is not necessary at this time to favor 
one and condemn the others, for all breeds sell 
alike w^hen the animals are of the right kind. We 
say that it is quite easy to describe the animal we 
would like to produce, but to produce him is 
another thing. 

Breed for the Market — A short time ago any 
horse that would weigh 1,400 or 1,500 pounds, was 
awkward, big-headed, lazy and good for no par- 
ticular Avork, was classed as a draft horse by the 
layman. Today in many places this same notion 
prevails. If we will become acquainted with the 
animal many farmers raise and force upon the 
market, we will find that they are not draft horses, 
neither are they road or coach horses, but quite 
likely a lot of misfits that belong to no particular 
class, and for which there is no market. The 
farmer should learn to produce that which the peo- 
ple want and the market demands. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Feeding the Horse 

The entire anatomy and physiology of its diges- 
tive apparatus show that the food of the horse 
should be nutritious in quality, supplied frequently, 
and in comparatively small quantities. The food, 
of whatever variety, must, of course, be of good 
quality, sound and wholesome; but beyond this, no 
specific rules can be laid down for general applica- 
tion. The amount and character of the food must 
vary with the size and constitution of the horse, 
the climate and season, the amount of work re- 
quired, and the country it lives in. 

The horse is an inhabitant of nearly all parts 
of the earth, and exhibits a wonderful adaptabil- 
ity to various situations. In Arabia its principal 
food is barley, varied by scant herbage, and 
even dates; in Iceland and some of the Shetland 
Islands it subsists mainly on dried fish. On the 
western plains, great herds of horses retain 
splendid health and vigor through the rigid, stormy 
winters upon the dried bunch grass, often having 
to paw away the snow to reach it. In England 
the food of the horse is mainly hay, oats and beans, 
while in various parts of the Continent horses are 
fed on rye, barley and inferior qualities of wheat. 
In India the common food of horses is a plant 
of the pea family. In some parts of the United 
States and the southern regions of Europe, Indian 
corn forms an important element in horse food, 
but not to such an extent that ''American horses 
rarely taste oats,'' as is asserted by an eminent 



. FEEDING THE HORSE 69 

English author. Good, well-made hay, free from 
dust and dirt, and sound, well-seasoned oats may 
in a general way be regarded as the staple food 
for horses. But no animal can do as well on a 
monotonous diet, even if of good quality, as it will 
with a judicious variety. 

MIX THE FEEDS TO FIT THE NEEDS 

With the results of skillful chemical analysis be- 
fore him, the feeder need no longer proceed in a 
haphazard manner, or follow blindly in old ruts, 
often buying at heavy cost certain standard kinds 
of food, when equally valuable material of other 
kinds is cheap and plentiful. He has only to adjust 
the rations in such a manner that they will con- 
tain about the correct proportions of the various 
elements. Those proportions should be varied 
according to the' season, the amount of work 
required, and the constitution of the horse. 

Roughage Feeds for Horses — Timothy hay with 
oats may well be regarded in this country as the 
standard article for feeding horses. But there are 
many other grasses equally available. In the 
prairie regions and farther west, there are several 
species of blue- joint and other wild grasses scarcely 
inferior to timothy. Some of these attain immense 
growth in rich bottoms, and if cut at the right time, 
and properly made into hay, are both palatable and 
wholesome for horses. 

Hungarian grass and German millet. If cut and 
cured just as the first blossoms appear, make a 
hay scarcely inferior to timothy. 

Clover and alfalfa are rich in albuminoids. 
Either one makes a well-balanced ration with corn 
meal, corn fodder, straw or other material contain- 
ing an excess of carbohydrates. 




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FEEDING THE HORSE 7I 

Corn fodder is a better feed for horses than is 
generally supposed. But it must be bright and 
well cured. If allowed to stand for months in 
small stooks, with the butts on the soft grovuid, 
and the tops and leaves exposed to the weather, 
it is unfit for fodder. Qn the other hand, if stored 
away in a barn while damp, and allowed to mold 
and rot, it is not only unpalatable, but actually per- 
nicious to the health of animals which are com- 
pelled to eat it. Corn fodder contains an excess 
of carbohydrates for a well-balanced food, and 
when fed either green or dry, should be mixed 
with clover, bran or any other nitrogenous food 
material. It is eaten with a better relish if cut up, 
crushed, moistened and fed in connection with 
bran, oil meal, or cottonseed meal. 

Grain Feeds for Horses — Oats are pre-eminently 
the grain for horses, if only one kind of grain is 
fed. They contain a large per cent of nutrients in 
almost the correct ratio for the horse's require- 
ments. The fibrous husk in which the grain is in- 
closed serves a valuable purpose in dividing the 
mass in the horse's stomach, and exposing it to 
the action of the digestive fluids. Oats should be 
at least three months old before they are fed. 
When new, they are difficult to digest, and liable to 
give a horse the colic. They should be plump and 
of full weight. The husk on light, inferior oats 
is as heavy as those which are sound and heavy, 
the deficiency in weight coming wholly out of the 
grain. Thirty-two pounds constitute a legal 
bushel, but good samples weigh more, running as 
high as 44 pounds to the measured bushel. Six 
quarts of the latter weigh nearly as much as 
a peck of the former, and contain far more nutri- 
ment. This fact should be taken into considera- 



^2 FARM STOCK 

tion in buying and feeding. If fed whole, even 
to young horses with good teeth, oats are more 
or less imperfectly masticated and a part passes 
through undigested. Many judicious feeders have 
them crushed, to secure more complete mastication. 

Indian corn is the great food grain of America, 
and of the immense annual crops, aggregating 
more than two billion bushels, the greater part is 
fed to domestic animals. Corn is largely used as 
an article of horse food, either unground or in the 
form of meal. Corn is a highly concentrated food, 
heating and deficient in muscle-forming elements. 
When fed to horses, it should, therefore, be com- 
bined with nitrogenous foods in such proportions 
as are best adapted to the season, amount of work 
required and other conditions. It is quite a usual 
practice with many horse owners to feed their 
horses corn in the ear, under the idea of saving the 
expense of grinding. But this is very questionable 
economy, for a considerable part of the grain must 
go through undigested. On the other hand, if fed 
in the form of fine meal, it should be mixed with 
several times its own bulk of cut hay or other 
Coarse feed to separate the particles and expose 
them to the action of the digestive fluids of the 
stomach. If fed alone, corn meal becomes im- 
pacted in the stomach, forming a plastic, adhesive 
mass nearly impenetrable to the gastric juice. Se- 
vere, and in some cases, fatal colic is the frequent 
result. Even if the meal is mixed with oats, the 
mass is too dense to form a safe and desirable 
food, unless fed in combination with a coarser ma- 
terial. 

Barley is the principal grain food of horses in 
many parts of the world. The Arabs feed their 



FEEDING THE HORSE 73 

famous horses largely on barley ; the French in Al- 
geria have adopted the saxne practice. In some of 
the great breeding stables of Illinois barley and 
oats are ground together in proportions varying 
with the season, and are fed to stallions and mares. 
The introduction of a black, hull-less barley into 
cultivation is likely to lead to still more extensive 
use of this grain as food for horses. The black, 
hull-less variety is not used in malting; it yields 
large crops in many parts of the Northwest beyond 
the ''corn belt" and is as easily raised as oats. 
This new variety seems likel}^ to become an impor- 
tant item in the general grain crops of the country. 
Barley contains a larger proportion of the elements 
which produce heat and fat than any other grain, 
except Indian corn. Moreover, it weighs one-half 
more per bushel than oats, and the hull-less variety 
is still heavier. When either barley or corn and 
oats are ground and fed together, they should be 
mixed according to weight, not bulk. 

Wheat bran is a valuable article for horse feed, 
both for its peculiar action on the digestive organs, 
and as a balance to richer foods. W^hen fed alone, 
it is generally in the form of warm mash. To 
make this, take four quarts of pure wheat bran, 
add two tablespoons of salt, pour over it boiling 
water, and stir quickly until all is wet, but not too 
thin ; cover closely to confine the steam, let it stand 
until cool and give it in place of the regular 
feed. Such a mash once a week, while the horse 
is kept in stables, will gently open the bowels and 
promote digestion. It should be given at night, 
and preferably before a day of rest, as the imme- 
diate effect is somewhat weakening. Bran may 
also be mixed with ground oats, corn or barley. 



74 FARM STOCK 

Linseed cake is largely employed as animal food 
in England, the greater part of that made in this 
country being exported there. But Americans are 
learning its value, and are feeding more of it than 
formerly. It acts both as a medicine and as a 
food. It is mildly laxative to the bowels, sooth- 
ing to the air passages, and gives gloss to the coat. 
The "new process" meal contains much less oil 
than that made by the old process, and is therefore 
less relaxing and fattening, while the proportion 
of albuminoids is greater. As a feed substance oil 
meal is useful mainly to mix in small quantities 
with other materials. A ration containing six parts 
of oats, four of corn, and two of linseed meal, 
would be very nearly equivalent to the oats and 
beans which form the grain staple of food given 
to horses in England. 

Cottonseed meal is similar in its chemical com- 
position to linseed meal, but is more highly con- 
centrated, and contains a larger proportion of 
nitrogenous elements. It should be fed with 
caution, in small quantities of two to four pounds. 

Carrots have a food value greater than their 
composition would indicate. Eighty-five per cent 
of their bulk is water, and of the solids which re- 
main, nearly one-tenth is fiber. Yet they serve to 
cool the system, and assist in the digestion of other 
food. They should be fed a few at a time, two or 
three times a week. Parsnips have nearly the same 
composition as carrots, except that they contain 
even a larger per cent of water. In England and 
France they are fed in the same way as carrots. 

In making up a feeding ration for a horse, the 
first point is to find out how much the horse will 
eat; the next is to regulate the ration according 
to the weather, and the amount and character of 



FEEDING THE HORSE 75 

the work the horse is expected to perform. The 
harder the work and the colder the weather, the 
greater the proportion of carbohydrates required 
in the food. 

Salt is doubtless wholesome and beneficial for 
horses, notwithstanding" the contrary opinion of 
some people who have given attention to the mat- 
ter. But horses are fond of salt, and thrive better 
with it than if deprived of it. The best method 
of supplying this article is to keep a lump 'of rock 
salt at all times where the horse can lick it. Re- 
ceptacles are made of wire for this purpose, but a 
small wooden or iron box, fastened near the man- 
ger or rack, will serve nearly as well. 

WATERING THE HORSE 

The horse in a state of nature feeds upon juicy, 
succulent herbage, and drinks at pleasure from, 
pure water. When these conditions are changed 
for confinement in the stable or work on the dusty 
road, with a diet consisting mainly, if not ex- 
clusively, of dry hay and grain, the health and 
well-being of the horse, as well as common human- 
ity, demand careful and judicious attention to the 
matter of water suppl3\ The water must always 
be pure and fresh. No animal is more delicate and 
fastidious about its drink than a horse, and one of 
them will suffer agonies of thirst rather than 
quench it with impure, tepid or stale water. It 
should be given in small quantities and frequently, 
and never in large draughts, when the horse comes 
in heated, or immediately before being put to work. 

Some horses require more water than others, the 
quantity varying with the amount of hay they will 
eat, propensity to sweat, etc. The water should 



76 FARM STOCK 

not be excessively cold. Copious draughts of cold 
water, when the horse is heated, produce colic, or 
founder is likely to ensue. If pumped from a cold 
well, it may stand until the chill is taken off. Hard 
water is much decried as causing harshness in the 
coat, and soft water is doubtless better. Yet no 
part of the country produces finer horses than the 
limestone states of Vermont and Kentucky. If a 
change is made from soft to hard water it should 
be done gradually, as the horse becomes accustomed 
to it. Where rain water is given it should be kept 
clean and aerated. Stale, foul water from a neg- 
lected cistern is unfit for a horse, and will be re- 
fused except in case of extreme thirst. 

Water When at Work in Fields — Horses when 
working in the field are subjected to great suffer- 
ing from thirst. From morning till noon, and 
again from noon until the hour of quitting for the 
night, the horses are kept in the dusty field, often 
under a burning sun, without a drink. The driver 
makes frequent visits to the water jug in the shade, 
without giving a thought to his thirsty horses. If 
there is no brook or other water supply within con- 
venient distance, a keg of it, with a pail, may be 
carried along and kept in the shade. 

When a horse comes in heated and tired from 
hard driving, nothing is more grateful and sooth- 
ing than a few quarts of gruel made by throwing 
a handful of oatmeal or linseed meal in a gallon 
of boiling water. If none of this is prepared, a 
handful of oatmeal in half a bucket of cold water 
may be given. 

Watering at the Barn — Many good horsemen 
prefer watering before feeding, which, I think, is 
a good practice, especially in summer, as the horse 
requires a large amount of water to supply the 



FEEDING THE HORSE 77 

needs of the body. After perspiring* almost all 
day, the horse comes in pretty much exhausted in 
the evening, due to the loss of water and energy. 
Before being fed his grain, he should be given 
water and allowed to cool. If he is very warm, 
only a limited amount should be given at one time, 
but he must be watered frequently until he gets all 
that he wants as soon as he is cool enough to 
take it. 

It is a good plan to allow a little time for the 
horses to cool off before giving them the evening 
grain ration. Some men allow them to stand and 
eat hay while they themselves are at supper and 
then feed the grain ration later. After standing all 
night, the horse will be thirsty and will appreciate 
a drink the first thing in the morning. If water 
is given before feeding instead of after feeding, 
there will be no tendency to wash the food out of 
the stomach into the intestines. 

Large quantities of cold water taken into the 
stomach immediately after a meal tend to. arrest 
digestion by cooling the stomach and diluting the 
digestive fluids, which may cause colic. 



CHAPTER VII. 

The Care and Management of Horses 

It is no small matter to give farm horses just 
the sort of care necessary and to manage them in 
the most satisfactory way, unless very thoughtful 
study be given that feed, work, stabling and rest be 
all properly adjusted. It is a very easy thing to 
overfeed, or to feed materials not just ideally 
adapted to the purpose. Just how much work a 
horse ought to be expected to do in summer or 
winter must always be considered by the man who 
has the team in charge; likewise, when to pasture 
and the sort of pasture, and both in relation to 
other feed, are problems not yet solved, but yet 
ver}^ important ones to both the owner and to the 
animals. 

The winter period usually calls for no great 
amount of work on the part of horses ; and on 
many farms little care and attention are paid to 
farm horses. As a rule, all of the feed that is 
needed is supplied; at least enough to induce fat- 
tening, although the stock may be dirty and some- 
what unthrifty. How often it is that we see horses 
which are fat and in good condition put to hard 
spring and summer work and abruptly or gradually 
decrease in substance and weight! Either the 
horse is worked too hard or he is not receiving 
the food and kind of food and care in other di- 
rections that he should have. 

During the winter season good water is a first 
essential, as in the summer; and the daily ration 
should contain bright, clear, roughage material 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 79 

with some grain to furnish the necessary nutrients 
for the maintenance of the animal in good form 
and condition. 

The winter ration for the average work horse 
does not need to be expensive. Some alfalfa, fed 
two or three times a week (and if alfalfa is not 
available, then clover or cowpea hay) should be 
supplied for the protein or muscle-making ingre- 
dients. In addition you can feed oats straw, bright, 
clear, corn stover or any ordinary hay. But corn 
and corn stover, a common winter ration for work 
horses, is not the best sort of feed, because it is 
lacking in protein, and contains an over-supply of 
carbohydrates. 

Whether horses during the winter are to be 
sheltered in stalls or allow^ed to run in the open 
will depend upon circumstances. Where many 
liorses are kept together during the winter and are 
not subjected to work, the open field with good 
protection from wind, storm and rain by means of 
sheds, covered straw-piles and the like, is very sat- 
isfactory. 

While daily grooming is desirable, it is not es- 
sential for common stock if good shelter and good 
,feed of the right quality and quantity are other- 
wise provided. Feed should contain considerable 
variety, for horses like a change just as other ani- 
mals, or people. 

The substance of winter treatment can be boiled 
down to good food, plenty of fresh air, constant 
exercise and shelter. During the summer and work 
season, of course, the closest attention must be paid 
to feed, daily grooming must be done, fresh water 
must be provided, the most nutritious, appetizing 
and refreshing grain and fodder furnished, and 
the o-eneral health of the animal maintained. 



80 FARM STOCK 

THE MANAGEMENT OF STALLIONS 

The stable for stallions must be arranged so 
that they can have plenty of fresh air and sun- 
shine. The stalls must be roomy and smooth so 
that they can have perfect freedom to move about 
in them without injury to themselves. Everything 
about the stable must be kept thoroughly clean and 
fresh bedding must be supplied each day in abun- 
dance. In feeding, care must be taken not to over- 
do it. Their appetites must be kept sharp. The 
best results are obtained by frequent feeding. 
Small proportions can be given at first and then 
gradually increased until a full portion is given, 
which varies according to the size and condition 
of the horse. 

A Good Ration — For a growing three-year-old 
stallion, a fair feed upon which he would do well 
would be, in the morning, five quarts oats and four 
fair-sized carrots; at noon, eight to ten quarts 
mixed feed, consisting of two-thirds bran and one- 
third oats and a small quantity of chopped hay, all 
mixed together and dampened with water. They 
do well on this mixture and relish it. At night, 
have the same as at noon. After the horse has 
finished his grain ration, he should be given a small 
ration of mixed hay, timothy and clover. The 
same rule applies to feeding hay as grain, namely, 
a horse should not be given more than he eats up 
clean. 

Groom Daily — It must not be forgotten that a 
horse must be well groomed each day, that is, well 
brushed and rubbed, in order to keep him in good 
condition. It puts a finish and gloss on his coat, 
gives him a fresh appearance and makes him more 
choice in every way. The tail and mane should 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 8 1 

have every care, for they add greatly to the ap- 
pearance of a fine horse. The staUion should al- 
ways be kept shod and the shoes should be reset 
at frequent and regular intervals. This is espe- 
cially true with heavy draft stallions, otherwise the 
feet are in danger of being broken when the horse 
is exercised or worked. 

Never Slight Exercise — Exercise should be 
given a horse moderately. Under all circum- 
stances he should have a large box stall, wherein 
he will have freedom to move around, and he 
should be exercised out in the open air a half hour 
each day. To walk out in the open air a half 
hour each day is sufficient to keep a stallion in per- 
fect health. Where a large number of stallions are 
kept in one place, it is necessary to avoid excite- 
ment as much as possible. Kind treatment and 
quietness go together. A horse that is treated 
kindly will always walk up and take his feed and is 
never in fear of the man who cares for and feeds 
him. Horses that are treated in a kindly, quiet 
manner are always much easier handled. They 
grow and thrive much better. 

BREAKING THE COLT ON THE FARM 

The first step in training a colt is to make 
friends with it. Gain its confidence by dividing 
your apple with it, petting it and currying it. A 
colt is practically half broken when you catch it 
anywhere. This is brought about gradually in the 
ways stated above, or by giving a little choice feed 
or some salt. Do not permit any abuse or teasing, 
as such treatment is often responsible for a great 
many of the vicious horses. Slip on the halter, or 
preferably the bridle, and, with the assistance of a 



82 FARM STOCK 

driver, lead it about. Repeat this frequentlr Dis- 
pense with the driver as soon as possible. 

How to Halter-Break — A very good way to hal- 
ter-break a colt is alongside a horse. The rider 
then acts both as a leader and driver. Some tie 
the colt to the harness of the work horse or trot- 
ter. This is a good way, as it not only teaches it 
to lead ; it teaches also its place. Put on the harness 
very gently and let the colt get used to it. Then 
drive it, using two short lines. 

WINTER CARE OF FARM HORSES 

The feed and care of farm horses during the 
winter months should be governed somewhat by 
the condition of the animals and the amount of 
work and exercise they are getting. Under no 
conditions is it advisable to cut off the grain ration 
entirely or turn the animals out to a straw stack 
to get a scant living as best they can, or in other 
words barely to exist until springtime and hard 
work comes again. Individual horses require dif- 
ferent feeds and in varying quantities during the 
winter months. Some animals when not at work 
will winter nicely on silage as a principal feed with 
some hay, but I prefer to add some bran and 
ground oats to the ration. I would not advise the 
feeding of silage to any horse that is being worked 
or driven, or one that is at all subject to colic. A 
horse that goes in the winter in fair flesh should 
be fed a moderate amount of hay twice a day. 
Many farmers feed too much hay. What a horse 
will eat in an hour is a great plenty. This eating 
period will include also enough bran and middlings 
or ground oats to keep him in good condition. 

Salt Ahvays Wanted — A little salt once a week, 
or better, if you can get it, a good sized lump of 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 53 

rock salt in the manger all the time. Occasionally 
a hot bran mash with a little oil meal added is a 
good thing. Heavy or excessive feeding is not 
necessary if the horse is in fair condition. Let a 
horse get poor, hair roug-h and dull, and it is more 
expensive to get him in condition again than to 
keep him in good shape all the time. 

Horses should have all the water they want. 
They should be watered often enough so that they 
will not g-et chilled by drinking too much cold water 
at one time. I have noticed that the better horses 
a farmer owns the more pride both he and his help 
take in keeping them in good shape and caring for 
them well. 

I would advise every farmer to breed the best 
horses he can. If buying a team, get as good a 
pair as you can afford. A really good team will 
usually do better service; besides, it is a pleasure 
and satisfaction to own such animals. They sell 
quicker and for more money when you wish to 
dispose of them. 

A word about young horses and colts, which 
every farmer should depend on for his working 
and dri^ing animals. Remember that feeding, as 
well as breeding, governs the value of your colt 
when old enough for business. 

Keep him thrifty and growing nicely from a 
weanling to maturity. The lack of a little feed 
while young- has reduced the value one-half on 
many farm and market horses. Watch the colt's 
feet, keep them straight and not too long. Ex- 
amine the teeth. H any sharp corners are found 
near the cheek, take them off with a file or float. 
Bad digestion and unpleasant drivers have been 
cured in this way. Should 3^011 have a sick horse 
or colt use some standard remedies., or einploy a 



84 FARM STOCK 

good veterinarian. Too many kinds of harmful 
doses advised by friends and too much activity in 
giving them by anxious owners ,has helped to 
shorten the Hfe of many a farm horse. 

PREPARING TEAMS FOR WORK 

Horses just taken up after a long rest do not 
need much grain at first, but the quantity should 
be increased, little by little, as the time advances, 
and amount of labor increases. You should re- 
member that the system is not in a condition to 
digest and assimilate much food at first, but that 
the capabilities will increase gradually as the sys- 
tem requires, to maintain it under the increased 
effort required to perform the extra amount of 
labor. Increase in capabilities in feeding and capa- 
bilities for labor can be developed slowly at the 
same time, under judicious management; but a 
horse that has been idle for any great length of 
time cannot be transformed suddenly from the soft, 
flabby condition to a hardened condition capable of 
sustained effort and endurance. 

Know the Team — The man who really has a love 
for his horses and seeks to give them a chance to 
perform their part without injury to themselves, 
as well as in a manner that will be a profit to him- 
self, will study their needs under varying condi- 
tions, as well as the character of each individual 
horse so as to be able to meet the different require- 
ments as they present themselves. Such a man is 
alert, never allowing the harness to gall for lack of 
proper adjustment. He will not worry one horse 
or put him to a disadvantage beside the other. It 
is too often the case that the owner and driver of 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 



85 



the horses need educating and training first. When 
failures and losses are met with, many find the man 
behind the team responsible. 

THE MARE AND HER FOAL 

Until the foal is a month old, it ought not to get 
wet nor have a damp bed. After that time, if well 




HACKNEY MARE AND FOAL 

The colt here is sired by a thoroughbred. It is to be used 
as a roadster by a Maryland farmer. 

cared for from the first, it can stand as much ex- 
posure, if well, as the dam should be allowed to be 
put in. 

If the mother is put to work, it is much better to 
leave the colt at the barn from morning until noon. 



86 FARM STOCK 

cooling the mare if warm before allowing the foal 
to suck. The annoyance of having the colt follow- 
ing the dam will be avoided and it really is much 
safer in a stall by itself. The mother is more quiet 
than if her young is following and getting around 
other stock and running the risk of entanglement 
with machinery and harness. If the foal has a stall 
of its own and is with the dam only at nursing 
time, the process of weaning is much easier. As 
the feed is increased and the time approaches the 
hours without milk can be made to include the en- 
tire day. When entire separation takes place the 
tantrums are avoided. 

At all times when the dam is not worked, the 
foal shoiild be allowed to run with her in a pad- 
dock away from other stock. Grass is an ideal 
feed supplemented with oats for the first few 
months. If the mother and colt are kept from 
fright and excitement and accustomed to the 
groom, the breaking of the colt to harness will be 
a comparatively small job. Halter breaking should 
be done while the colt follows the dam. This is 
quite another process when cows and other horses 
run in the same pasture and the mother is in a 
panic of fear lest the foal be hurt, and perhaps the 
dogs join in a barnyard melee now and then. The 
colt then may be as hard to manage as the mus- 
tang, who finds an enemy in every man. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Diseases of the Horse 

Health is the prime requisite in the successful 
management of live stock. A herd or flock more 
or less indisposed or sick is a rather sure indication 
that either the stock itself is not of a healthy strain 
or else that the conditions under which the animals 
are cared for, managed and fed, are not right. 
Some really good farmers are frequently troubled 
with disease in their stock, but the great majority 
of the best live-stock men have the least trouble of 
all. This is due for one reason to the fact that the 
stock owner has qualified himself to take proper 
care of the animals he possesses. He has learned 
how to feed, care for and manage, and, therefore, 
he is little concerned with treatment and medicine. 
In fact, the secret of successful treatment of dis- 
eases is to begin that treatment before the disease 
has taken hold. That means ''prevention is better 
than cure." Have good ventilation in the stables, 
thorough sanitary conditions in all of the quarters, 
well-balanced food, so that all requisites of nu- 
trition may be secured, with plenty of salt and 
water, and the common ailments will not come to 
your herds or flocks. 

RECOGNIZING AND DISTINGUISHING 
DISEASES 

To become expert in recognizing disease you 
must study carefully the horse in health. This 
means that the practice of feeling the pulse and 

87 



88 FARM STOCK 

heart, listening to the sounds of the lungs in breath- 
ing, feeling the skin, and generally observing the 
features will come in good use when the animal is 
sick. Become acquainted with the healthy and the 
sickly eye, tongue and posture ; and fix in your mind 
the nature of the appetite and the discharge of the 
bowels and bladder. 

Pulse~ln the full-grown horse, it beats 40 per 
minute; in the ox, from 50 to 55; in the sheep and 
pig, as man, from 70 to 80. 

You can always find the pulse where an artery 
passes over a bone. The usual place it is sought in 
the horse is on the cord that runs across the bone 
of the lower jaw, just in front of the curved por- 
tion; in cattle it is conveniently found over the 
middle of the first rib, or beneath the tail. 

In the horse the pulse is full and tense ; in the ox, 
soft and rolling. Any variation is a sign of dis- 
order. Fever is indicated by the pulse being rapid, 
small and weak for the low kind; and if fever is 
high it is rapid, full and hard. If very slow, you 
can expect brain disorder; and if fast, then slow 
and irregular, some trouble with the heart. 

Breathing — The air passes through the windpipe 
with a regular, steady sound. Observe this by 
placing the ear near the throat. When any varia- 
tion is observed you may know that all is not right. 
The rapidity with which breathing is performed in- 
dicates health or disease. Normal breathing in the 
horse varies from eight to 12 times a minute and in 
the cow a little faster. Any great increase may be 
taken as an indication of trouble. 

Body Heat — Any deviation from 98 degrees is 
a certain sign of disease. When the thermometer 
rises above 104 degrees there is great danger. Each 
disease has its own temperature. 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 89 

Skin and Hair — The normal skin is soft, mel- 
low and pliable. If harsh and dry, it is abnormal. 
''Hide-bound" is a symptom of general disorder, 
due to poor nutrition, indigestion, worms or lack 
of exercise. When the skin becomes covered with 
a cold sweat, the life of the animal is in great 
danger. 

How the Animal Appears — To lie constantly on 
one side or to assume one position indicates that 
the animal is in pain in the other. By acquainting 
yourself with the different postures, you can often 
quickly arrive at the trouble. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Of all domesticated animals, the horse is the one 
whose diseases have received the closest study. One 
reason for this has been that the horse is the most 
valuable of farm animals. Some specimens of 
horse flesh are very valuable indeed, commanding 
wonderful prices in the markets of the world. It 
follows that where such conditions as this prevail, 
the closest attention will be given to that animal's 
diseases and their treatment. A few of the com- 
mon diseases only will be mentioned here. 

Cerebrospinal Meningitis — This is a congestion 
that soon passes into inflammation of the brain and 
the spinal cord, accompanied by paralysis. The 
cause of this disease is believed to be improper food; 
food that is moldy, like moldy clover hay, al- 
falfa, grain stover, are always connected with this 
trouble. In its severe form the horse is attacked 
suddenly with inability to swallow and with spasms 
that frequently follow one another. The respira- 
tion is bad and the horse tends to move around in a 
circle. When the temperature rises to 103 to 104 



go FARM STOCK 

degrees, death is imminent. In treating, it is best to 
call in a trained veterinarian. 

Tetanus or Lockjazv — This is a germ disease 
that develops from a wound in the legs or feet, 
often in itself of a trifling character; the pene- 
tration of a small nail more frequently being the 
cause than all others combined. Tetanus is simply 
a long continued spasm of the muscles which con- 
tract rigidly, often keeping the jaws firmly closed 
or locked. 

The first indication of this trouble is the stiff- 
ness of the muscles near the injury. The animal 
will move his limbs with difiiculty. In a day or 
two the stiffness will be increased until it extends 
over the body. The champing of jaws and grind- 
ing of teeth will soon be noticed. Froth will show 
itself also on the lips, breathing becomes more 
rapid, the pulse quickens and the muscles dilate. 
Veterinarians always look for the unfailing sign 
of winking membrane of the eye and the protrusion 
of the haul together with a closing of the jaws. 
The best advice and treatment is to call a veteri- 
narian. 

Pneumonia — This is the inflammation of the 
lungs followed by the secretion of lymph which fills 
them up and solidifies them, later leading to death 
by suffocation or else to the gradual absorption and 
recovery. 

The common cause of this disease is any sudden 
change in temperature, weakened condition of the 
body effected by getting chilled or wet, thereby 
giving the germ an opportunity to fix itself and 
develop rapidly. In other words, the cause is quite 
similar to what it is in the case of man. One of 
the early symptoms is the rapid increase of the 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE QI 

pulse, going up to 70 to 80 beats a minute; tem- 
perature rises to 103 or 104 and above. The ani- 
mal, appears cold ; there is a dull, dry cough and a 
coldness about the legs and ears; sometimes a 
blood-stained mucus is discharged from the nose. 

In treating the disease, put the animal in a warm 
place where there is plenty of fresh air and where 
it is not cold. Wrapping the body with cloths is 
also a good idea. Keep the bowels loose and open ; 
feed cooling and nutritious and laxative, like bran 
and linseed meal; and then you had better call a 
veterinarian also. 

Heaves — This is a chronic disease that affects 
the breathing organs. There is no inflammation 
at all. The peculiar breathing, especially if the 
horse is given active exercise, will tell you at once 
the nature of the trouble. 

The immediate cause of heaves is the breaking 
of the cells in the lungs, consequently air is expelled 
only with extra effort, giving the two distinct noises 
by the effort. Animals that are unthrifty and 
generally not in good health are thus more predis- 
posed to this trouble. There is no cure for the 
malady. You can help the animal by feeding only 
light, nutritious food in moderate quantities, by 
keeping the bowels regular and open. If the trouble 
is just noticed as beginning, it is wise to turn to 
pasture on green, short grass. 

Indigestion — There are all sorts of causes of in- 
digestion, but, of course, that most common is the 
improper use of food; overeating or the use of 
undesirable materials naturally causes trouble. 
Young horses passing through the stage of teeth- 
ing often get indigestion. Another cause is allow- 
ing the colt to suckle while the dam is hot and 
exhausted. 



92 



FARM STOCK 



Indigestion is indicated by pawing of the fore- 
feet, pains in the stomach, belching of wind and 
often a fulhiess in the abdomen. 

In treating ordinary cases, to change the food so 
that some easily digested product can be taken into 
the body, giving the least possible amount, is a very 
satisfactory proceeding. It will be well to give the 
animal seme sort of a tonic that can be obtained 
from your druggist or veterinarian. 

Colic— One of the most common troubles of the 
horse is colic. This is nothing more than a spas- 
modic contraction of the muscular coats of the in- 
testines; quite sudden severe pains spring up and 
oftentimes they run into inflammation. Improper 
food is the common cause; overworking, with sud- 
den filling of the stomach with water or food, fre- 
quently brings on colic. Sudden change of diet, 
the animal greedily eating the changed food, and 
such other little incidents are often the cause of in- 
digestion. You will always notice that pains ac- 
companied by pawing, kicking at the abdomen, 
lying down, rolling, getting up again, lying down 
and stretching out, then quickly rising again, shak- 
ing of the body, etc., are certain indications of this 
trouble. 

About the safest and wisest treatment of colic is 
to give some opiate to relieve the pain and then 
to secure a free action of the bowels by using some 
purgative, one not too violent in its action. A half 
to one ounce of laudanum in warm water will 
quickly allay the pain, and then follow this with 
some purgative. 

An old reliable formula is to use one ounce each 
of choloroform, laudanum and sulphuric ether with 
eight ounces of linseed oil, giving all at one dose. 
Many colic preparations are now on the market that 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



93 



can be readily purchased and are reliable and good 
and ought to be in every stable where horses are 
kept. 

Constipation — This common trouble is caused 
by feeding heavily of grain and dry feeds 
with lack of exercise. When it becomes more or 
less acute, colicky pains are noticed, the skin be- 
comes hide-bound and various indications of indi- 
gestion appear. The animal does not look well or 
thrive and it lacks spirit. The simple use of pur- 
gatives that are strong will not cure the trouble — 
it is more deeply seated than that. The best way 
to do is to change the feed, using such materials as 
are naturally laxative, like bran and linseed-oil 
meal. Then there is nothing better than good, 
fresh pasture grass; in the winter time carrots, 
which are liked by horses, will be worth more than 
any sort of medicine to relieve the difficulty and 
to put the animal well on its feet again. 

Woriiis — The horse often is troubled with worms, 
which may arise from various sources. The symp- 
toms are not always distinctly pronounced, but if 
the coat is rough, appetite peculiar, constant rub- 
bing by the animal of the hind quarters, and general 
run-down condition, you may be reasonably certain 
that worms are behind the trouble. 

Feeding sulphur, linseed oil, a little carbolic acid, 
oil of turpentine, are all good in relieving the 
trouble. Better, however, secure some preparation 
from your druggist for this ailment or get some- 
thing from your local veterinarian. 

Glanders — This is a contagious and fatal dis- 
ease, due to poison in the system. There is a dis- 
charge from the nostrils and usually the animal 
loses in flesh and strength, The poison can be 
conveyed easily to man and for that reason the only 



94 



FARM STOCK 



thing- to do is to slaughter the animal as soon as 
glanders have been diagnosed. 

Glanders is without doubt the most dreaded of 
all horse diseases and is always incurable. In most 




BAD CASE OF GLANDERS 

ir. "^.h®,. farcy form is shown here. The animal has not 
long to live. Except for experimental purposes, every horse 
having glanders should be killed as soon as the disease is 
discovered. 



states rigid laws are being enforced as to the elimi- 
nation of this dreaded disease. It is usually ex- 
tended by the change of horses from one stable to 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 95 

another. If you suspect glanders, always call a 
reputable veterinarian. You cannot afford to have 
a glanders horse on your place, not only because 
all your other animals may become affected there- 
by, but your own health and that of your family 
are in danger. 

Here are just a few indications of acute chronic 
glanders ; The pulse usually is feeble ; there is rapid 
breathing, together with poor appetitie. The eye is 
weak and watery and the under jaw swollen. The 
lining membrane of the nostril is usually swollen, 
with a reddish color showing frequent ragged ulcers 
here and there from which a bloody and watery 
discharge drops. Abcesses form about the face and 
neck and these on ripening give forth their pus. 
Do not attempt to cure the animal at all. 

Lameness — It is not always an easy matter to lo- 
cate the cause of lameness in a horse. It may be 
due to corns or splints, or ring bones, or spavin, or 
side bones or to some injury, as a cut or nail insert. 
Of course, a cut can easily be located and readily 
seen, but many a nail has pricked or even entered 
the under side of a horse's foot and has been de- 
tected only with difficulty. In examining for lame- 
ness, observe when the animal is at rest and in 
motion; the favored foot will point out in what 
member you are to seek for the trouble. 

A corn is due always to bad shoeing or to wear- 
ing a shoe for too long a time. Corns don't always 
cause lameness, but they cause suffering. When 
noted, have the shoe removed, and if the corn is 
festered, have an opening made to give vent to 
the pus. 

The deposits of bony matter above and below the 
coronet are known as ring bones. In heavy horses, 



g6 FARM STOCK 

excessive work is usually the cause, although rheu- 
matism is sometimes back of it. Often the black- 
smith who shoes the animal can relieve the trouble 
by adjusting the shoe. 

Bone spavin is a bony growth on the inner and 
lower side of the hock. It is due to overwork or 
a hereditary predisposition to weakness there, due 
to bad conformation. Many treatments are sug- 
gested, such as blistering or firing. In the early 
stages of the trouble, have a veterinarian to treat 
the disease locally. 

Side bones are due to the change of the carti- 
lages of the forefeet into bony substance. They 
are more frequently found in draft horses and there 
is not much to do in the way of treating other than 
to remove the cartilages with a knife. This, how- 
ever, has not proved very satisfactory. Get your 
veterinarian to examine ; maybe he can relieve the 
difficulty 

THE BEST OF ALL TREATMENTS 

But the best treatment that you can give your 
horse is good care, proper feed, clean, fresh water, 
good sanitation, plenty of ventilation and never ex- 
cessive work unless the horse is used to it. There 
is in use an immense number of different methods 
and recipes for treating various kinds of diseases 
of the horse. Do not have anything to do with 
these. They are old-maidish, of little use and often 
impose great suffering. It is absurd and inhuman 
to treat horses in sickness in the way some of these 
old methods and recipes call for. Such methods 
ought to be prohibited by law; for instance, pour- 
ing medicines or water into the nostrils, forcing 
old dish cloths down the throat of the cow, etc. 



\ 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 97 

This sort of treatment is not backed by good sense 
and you cannot afford to have it practiced on your 
animals. Do away with the quack in the treating 
of diseases. Unless you know a good deal about 
veterinary medicine yourself, call a veterinary sur- 
geon in just as you would call your physician in to 
look after your family — not at every little indica- 
tion of trouble, for the reason that ordinarily, nine 
times out of ten, the horse will recover of its own 
account. Familiarize yourself with a few of the 
common ailments and troubles so that when some 
trouble manifests itself you will have in mind some 
line of treatment to begin at once. 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Mule 

The breeding of these animals goes away back 
into antiquity. It was forbidden among the Israel- 
ites by the laws of Moses, but in David's time they 
were certainly employing mules, probably im- 
ported. We know also that the Greeks and Ro- 
mans raised them. 

This hybrid is tall and is our strongest draft ani- 
mal for the farm. In appearance, more of the 
qualities of the horse are inherited than those of 
the ass. In height, in shape of neck, shoulders and 
body, the maternal form is inherited, while the 
head, the long ears, the tufted tail, the thin, wiry 
legs and the hoofs are the inheritance from the 
father. The coat largely resembles the horse, but 
the bray has a certain resemblance to the paternal 
Jioise. 

The most common character of the mule is his 
■freedom from disease and his great vigor. When 
three years old, he is ready for work and will keep 
it up for two or three decades. I have known 
:mules at 30 years of age to do their full day's 
iabor with little fatigue and keep it up day after 
•day in the hot summer months of North and 
•South, without any observable bodily change. The 
• animal may lose in weight, but not in grit. 

The mule, as is commonly known, is a hybrid be- 
tween the mare and the male ass or jack. The 
ihybrid produced between the horse stallion and the 
iemale ass, or jennet, is known as a hinny. 



THE MULE 99 

SELECTION OF A JACK 

In raising mules, the selection of the jack is an 
important matter. We may, therefore, proceed to 
describe the various breeds of jacks, which may be 
used for the purpose. In general, the best grades 
of jacks of all breeds are used for raising jacks 
and are called jennet jacks, while the somewhat less 
valuable ones are bred to mares for the production 
of mules and are called mule jacks. In the follow- 
ing account of jack breeds, Goodpasture's descrip- 
tions, as modified by Knight, Smith and Wilcox, 
are largely utilized. 

Andalusian — This breed comes from southern 
Spain, and was the first to be introduced into the 
United States. The King of Spain presented a 
jack and jennet of this breed to George Washing- 
ton in 1787. Later Henry Clay introduced them 
into Kentucky. It is an old breed. The color is 
gray, frequently white, and rarely black or blue. 
The Andalusians stand 14 to 15 hands high and 
have fine legs with large bone and comparatively 
free from jack sores. The head and ears are fairly 
satisfactory in conformation, but the breed is un- 
popular on account of its color. 

Maltese — This well-known breed came from the 
island of Malta, and the first to reach this country 
were given to General Washington by Lafayette. 
The Maltese is a small jack, seldom standing over 
14 hands high. The color is black or brown. The 
head is well formed, with pointed upright ears, but 
the legs are rather small for sires of mules. The 
Maltese is quite satisfactory for saddle or driving 
purposes, but is too small as a mule-getter for our 
farm conditions. 




100 



THE MULE lOI 

Catalonian — This is another Spanish breed of 
jack first introduced into the United States by- 
Henry Clay. This is a good black, with white 
points, of fine style and action, and from 14^ to 
15 hands, with a clean bone. The Catalonian is a 
popular jack on account of his desirable color, fine, 
short hair and unusual height. Rarely specimens 
of this breed are gray. In style and action the 
Catalonian is unsurpassed and he is, therefore, a 
desirable animal for crossing upon our native 
jennets. Some of the chief good points of our 
native jacks come from Catalonian crosses. Certain 
breeders claim that mules sired by Catalonian jacks 
mature earlier than those from other breeds. 

The Majorca Jack — The Majorca jack comes 
from the island of the same name. It is the lar- 
gest of all imported jacks, often standing 16 hands 
high, with the greatest weight and heaviest bone, 
head and ear of all jack breeds. No jennets of this 
breed have been imported into America. 

The Italian Jack — The Italian jack is common in 
Italy and has been imported in considerable numbers 
into this country. It is the smallest of im- 
ported breeds and the price is correspondingly 
low. The color is black, with an occasional gray, 
and the height 13 to 14 hands. The bone is large, 
but the Italian jack is too small for producing 
mules. It seems to be related to the Maltese. 
Occasionally they are quite vicious. 

. The Poitou — The Poitou was the latest breed of 
jacks to be imported into this country. The Poitou 
jack has been greatly improved by systematic 
breeding, with the result that France leads Europe 
in quality and number of jacks and also of mules. 
According to Ayrault, the noted French authority 
on the subject, the head of this jack is large, the 



102 FARM STOCK 

mouth small, and the ears with long, curly hair. 
The tail is short, with long hair only at the tip. The 
chest is broad, and all the joints are large. The 
mane is long and the hair generally fine and silky. 
The color is black or dark brown, rarely gray. The 
price is high, ranging from $i,ooo to $3,200. They 
are in such great demand in France, Spain and 
elsewhere that the trade can scarcely be supplied. 
The requirements for entry into -the Poitou stud 




MULES MAKE GOOD FARM WORKERS 

For hard work and warm work the mule is unexcelled. He 
does his business well and never complains. 

book are very strict. Mules from this jack, ac- 
cording to Allen, are unequaled, and sell for more 
than those from any other breed. Draft mares 
bred to this jack in the United States produce ex- 
cellent mules. 

The Native Jack — Notwithstanding the excel- 
lence of many imported jacks, especially the Poitou 
and the Catalonian, it is the opinion of experienced 
breeders like J. L. Jones, that "our native jacks 



THE MULE 103 

with good imported crosses behind them will sire 
the mules best suited to the wants ot those who use 
them in this country, and will supply the market 
with what is wanted by the dealers." The native 
jack is of greater weight and larger bone than im- 
ported jacks, showing in this regard the effect of 
limestone soil and blue grass. He is a mixture of 
all breeds of imported jacks, and, therefore, shows 
all colors. Recently, however, breeders have select- 
ed them for black color with white points. Colts 
from native jacks are stronger, with better body 
and more length than those of imported jacks. 

BEST TIME FOR BREEDING 

In breeding jacks to jennets, the spring is the 
best season. Jack colts are weaned at six months 
of age. They are fed on oats, bran, hay and plenty 
of green forage or pasture. Both jennet and mule 
jacks may begin service at two years of age. The 
jack gets only about 50 per cent of mule colts from 
his service, but the percentage of colts from stal- 
lions is usually no higher. About 40 mule colts 
per season is good work for a jack. Most consider 
it best that mule jacks should not be allowed to 
associate with their own species, but only with the 
horse. During the season of service they should 
be fed a nitrogenous ration and should have the 
freedom of a good pasture. 

THE BURRO 

From the Rocky mountains to the Pacific coast 
a diminutive jack, known as the burro, is in com- 
mon use. The burro is the descendant of jacks 
brought by the Spanish settlers of that region, but 



,I04 FARM STOCK 

it is not certain to what breed of jack it is most 
closely related. Its color varies from white to 
almost black, mouse color being very common. The 
size is about that of the Shetland pony. A peculiar 
feature frequently seen in the burro is its enor- 
mously thick neck. It is a slow, strong, patient 
and sure-footed animal, and is capable of carrying 
loads up to 250 pounds. It is, therefore, an excel- 
lent animal for mountain work. Burro mares 
crossed with the thoroughbred stallion produce 
hinnies of considerable speed, good temper, great 
endurance and more style than the ordinary mule 
shows. The best of hinnies for mining are ob- 
tained by putting burro mares to small, blocky stal- 
lions. If it is desirable in such cases, artificial 
insemination may be practiced by means of the 
S3a-inge or capsule. 

MULE INDUSTRY 

The following states are leaders in the mule in- 
dustry: Texas, Missouri, Mississippi, Georgia, 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, North 
Carolina and Kansas. In recent years, the industry 
has become widely extended and there are at pres- 
ent large mule ranches in Iowa, Montana, Colorado 
and Utah. The number of jacks, including burros, 
in the United States is about 125,000, a large per- 
centage of them being used in the production of 
mules. 

Mules may be used for all purposes for which 
horses are adapted, except fast driving, and in 
addition are well suited to several lines of work 
where horses cannot be profitably employed. Thus, 
in mines, mules excel horses for several reasons, 
notably for the reason that horses when frightened 



THE MULE 105 

throw the head up, thus bruising it and causing 
poll evil. Mules, on the other hand, lower the head 
at such times and avoid danger in that way. More- 
over, mules excel horses in their capacity for hard 
work, in endurance, in length of life, and in econ- 
omy of feeding. It is often asserted that mules 
live twice as long as horses, but the truth is they 
live considerably longer than horses. Then, too, 
mules are not immune to ordinary horse diseases, 
as is sometimes asserted. On the contrary, the}^ are 
just as susceptible to glanders, influenza, distemper, 
colic, etc., as are horses. The English government 
suffered great losses from glanders among mules 
in the Boer war 

For military purposes, the mule has long* been 
considered superior to the horse, and the army mule 
has been a conspicuous feature in all our Indian 
fighting and more serious wars. The mule is less 
easily frightened than the horse and withstands 
hardships better, such as going without w^ater for 
24 hours and without feed for two or three days. 

The use of mules for draft purposes in cities is 
increasing from year to year, and for farm work 
they are also becoming more popular. A Virginia 
farmer writes : *'For general purposes and lasting 
wear the well-bred mule outclasses and outlasts any 
horse." This statement is based on a long expe- 
rience with mules bred from mares weighing 1,400 
to 1,750 pounds, and a Kentucky jack for which 
$1,000 was paid. 

The opinion prevails quite widely that the mule 
is more stubborn, vicious and ill-tempered than the 
horse. The temper and behavior of the mule, how- 
ever, depend largely on his breaking, training and 
method of handling. Mules endure abuse and 
rough handling with as much patience as the horse. 



I06 FARM STOCK 

An Iowa breeder considers ''no team more gentle, 
more safe or agreeable to handle than a pair of 
mules." In the South, the mule and the negro 
work together. Cotton and sugar plantations are 
inconceivable without mules. All these uses of a 
mule constitute a market which is not likely to be 
overstocked for some time to come. Since the mule 
inherits much of its form from the dam, it is neces- 
sary to exercise as much care in selecting mares as 
in horse breeding. The mare must be sound and 
well built, and color should be dark, preferably 
black, bay or brown. "The mare should have good 
length, large, well-rounded barrel, good head, long 
neck, good, broad, flat bone, broad chest and good 
style." 

BEST TIME TO BREED MARES 

The right time for breeding is about April i in 
Tennessee and at corresponding times in other parts 
of the country. Before being served, mares should 
be hobbled or placed in pits or chutes. A suitable 
breeding chute may easily be constructed of plank, 
placed vertically and close enough together so that 
the jack's feet do not get caught. At the entrance 
to the chute, wings may be placed opening out at a 
slight angle. Poles passing through the chute in 
front and behind the mare, and also behind the fore- 
legs and in front of hind legs just under the belly, 
will prevent any accident from kicking or squat- 
ting. Moreover, if several mares are ready for 
service at the same time, artificial insemination may 
be accomplished by means of the syringe or capsule 
method. The mare is returned to the jack on the 
eighteenth day after service. 

For farm work, a mule should stand 15 to 15.2 
hands high and weigh 1,050 to 1,100 pounds. Some 



THE MULE 107 

users of mules prefer a heavier animal — up to 1,300 
pounds. In order to get mules of this size, 
Perclieron mares and a jack 15.2 hands high may 
be used. In all cases, both the mare and jack should 
be dark in color, for the market demands dark- 
colored mules. A mature jack is a more certain 
foal getter than a young one. While, therefore, 
jacks may be allowed to do service sparingly at two 
years of age, they should not be brought up to a 
maximum till the age of four or five years. Some 
breeders castrate male mules during the first sum- 
mer, while they are still with the mares, but, as a 
rule, it is better to wait till they are one year old. 
In general, the market prefers female to male 
mules. The females mature a little earlier and are 
plumper and more squarely built. Then, gnats and 
screw worm flies often irritate the sheath of the 
male. 

Warder recommends that mules be broken at 
two years of age, after which they are to be put at 
light work during the third year. It is believed 
that by this system they develop a quicker step than 
when broken after attaining full maturity and put 
at hard work immediately. The same methods are 
to be used in breaking mules as with horses. Abuse 
and barbarous treatment are quite uncalled for. 
''By kind treatment mules may be rendered the 
most docile and affectionate creatures among our 
domestic animals and will often show more intelli- 
gence than the horse." 

HINNIES 

Hinnies, as already stated, are hybrids obtained 
by crossing the stallion upon the female ass or 
jennet. The hinny is usually smaller than the mule 




108 



THE MULE 109 

and is commonly considered less desirable in every 
respect. One breeder states that hinnies are weak 
and stubborn and cannot be compared with mules. 
They resemble the horse rather than the jennet and 
have a neater head and heavier mane and tail than 
the mule. In Jamaica, the hinny is not considered 
so unimportant. One noted breeder says : 'T can 
make bold to say that they are hardier than the 
mule out of mares, will grow to a serviceable size 
and are more cheaply bred." Another breeder in 
Jamaica states that hinnies "are larger, more do- 
cile, and in all respects better than the ordinary 
mule, and the saving in breeding is considerable, as 
the price of one mule mare equals that of three or 
four jennies, and the keep of a jenny one-fourth 
that of a mare." Small stahions are used in breed- 
ing hinnies. We have already mentioned the fact 
that good hinnies have been obtained by crossing 
thoroughbred or pony stallions on burro mares. 
Now and then, in farm papers, the question is 
raised concerning the value and usefulness o£ 
hinnies. It may be, therefore, that on account of 
the economy in raising them, more attention may 
be given to the hinnies in the future than has here- 
tofore been the case. 

MARKET CLASSES 

There are three general classes of mules, cotton 
mules, sugar mules and mine mules. The size of 
the colt at birth and the rapidity of growth de- 
termine whether it be a sugar or cotton mule. If 
the colt, when foaled, is 3 feet 5 inches and up- 
ward, and grows nicely, it will make a sugar mule ; 
if under the above height it will be a cotton mule. 
The mature sugar mule stands 15.3 to 16.3 hands 



no FARM STOCK 

or higher and is heavy, well boned and rather sty- 
lish. They are used on sugar plantations for dray 
purposes and for heavy farm work. The cotton 
mule is simply smaller than the sugar mule, but of 
the same conformation. The mine mule is the 
smallest of the three and must be dark brown or, 
black in color. 

FEEDING MULES 

The statement is frequently made that mules eat 
less than horses. Riley, however, on the basis of 
a long experience with thousands of army mules, 
formed a different opinion. He maintains that a 
mule "requires just as much as a horse of similar 
dimensions." In fact, at hard work, Riley states 
that "the mule will eat more than the horse will or 
can." At three years of age the mule is shedding 
his milk teeth and cannot eat much. He is, there- 
fore, weak and particularly liable to contract dis- 
temper, sore eyes, skin sores, and other diseases. 
But the mature mule in health is a good feeder. In 
general, a poor feeder is a poor animal whether it 
be sheep, pig, dairy cow, beef steer or horse, and 
the mule is no exception to this rule. The mule will 
manage to get along on poor feed given at irregu- 
lar intervals, but the sensible man does not attempt 
to determine just how much neglect in this respect 
the mule endures. 

The Mule Colt is taught to eat grain before it is 
weaned, which takes place at the age of four 
months. At weaning time, the colts are put in a 
barn and fed bran, oats, cut grass and clean hay. 
After about two weeks, they may be turned on pas- 
ture, preferably alfalfa or clover, with some grain. 
Little variation is needed on this system till mules 



THE MULE III 

are two 3^ears old. Then, if they are to be sold, they 
must be fattened ; otherwise they bring but a small 
price. The following fattening regimen has been 
proposed by Jones : *'The sugar mule should be 
placed in the barn with plenty of room and not 
much light about the first of November, before he 
is two years old, and fed about 12 ears of corn per 
day and all the nice well-cured clover hay he will 
eat, and there kept until about the first of April. 
Then, in the climate of middle Tennessee, the clover 
is good, and the mule may be turned out on it with- 
out fear of firing, that is, heating so as to cause 
scratches, as the green clover removes all danger 
from this source. During the time they run on 
clover they eat less hay, but this should be always 
kept by them." Later, they are put in barns or 
sheds and fed green clover and grain in the form of 
sheaf oats and bran. Ground barley may be fed 
in June ad lihituin. Later they may be fed, in 
several separate grain rations, green roasting ears, 
shelled corn, bran and oats. Bran and oats are 
considered necessary for giving the proper finish 
to the coat. ]\Iules fed in this way until Septem- 
ber after they are two years old, should weigh 
1,150 to 1,350 pounds. The sugar mule market 
opens in September. 

The Cotton Mule is usually not put in the barn 
till August after it reaches two years of age. It 
should receive shelled corn, green corn, good hay 
and soiling crops until November, after which time 
oats and bran are added, so as to bring the mule 
to the right finish by January i, when the market 
for the cotton mule opens. The central southern 
market for sugar mules is New Orleans, but large 
markets for both classes of mules are found in 



112 FARM STOCK 

Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Louis- 
ville, Nashville, and many other cities of the Mis- 
sissippi valley region. In feeding working mules, 
the same materials may be used and in the same 
rations as for horses. 



CHAPTER X. 
Cattle 

No domestic animal has in the past, or does now, 
contribute so much to man's welfare as the cow 
and her kind. She gives us milk, our most impor- 
tant food to drink; she supplies us with butter and 
cheese, both appetizing and nutritious and both im- 
portant products on our tables ; her flesh is daily- 
used on all occasions for supplying our most popu- 
lar food ; from her back comes the hide to be made 
into leather that our feet may be kept covered, and 
that other necessities and luxuries may be provided 
us; and when she has ended her work and closed 
up her duties of life, her bones, blood and offal go 
back to our soils to maintain their freshness and 
fertility. 

The cow is a ruminant ; she belongs to the great 
class of cud-chewing animals. Her past is shrouded 
in mystery and we only surmise what her early his- 
tory has been. When she was domesticated we do 
not know, but during all the years that she has been 
held captive by man, she has supplied him with 
food, performed many of his hard labors, and con- 
tributed to his comfort and welfare. 

Cattle Improvement a First Essential — The fact 
that it is not possible for every farmer to possess 
pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not 
improve the stock he has. He can do this by 
securing pure-bred sires that possess the character- 
istics desired. Scrub stock can be quickly im- 
proved by the continuous use of good sires. It is 

113 




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114 



CATTLE 115 

never wise to use grade or cross-bred sires, since 
they do not possess stable characteristics. 

Moreover, it is possible for every farmer to de- 
termine exactly the producing power of his dairy 
cows. When cows are milked, the milk should be 
weighed and a record kept of it. If this is done, it 
will be found that some cows produce as much as 
1. 000 gallons or more, while others produce 
not more than one-half or even one-fourth of that 
quantity. If a farmer will kill or sell his poor 
cows and keep his best ones, he will, in a short 
while, have a herd of only heavy milkers. 

Young calves that are not to be fattened should 
be fed only such food as will produce rapid, thrifty 
growth, so that they may be gotten in readiness for 
the market at as early an age as possible. Young 
dairy animals may be fed any food that insures 
thrifty growth, but foods of a coarse nature are 
particularly good, especialh^ such kinds as clover, 
alfalfa and cowpea hay; pasture grasses, corn en- 
silage and roots, being succulent and juicy, are also 
excellent. 



CHAPTER XL 
Breeds of Cattle 

Shorthorns — We commence with this breed for 
the reason that, of all breeds of cattle, this is the 
most popular. Shorthorns are also commonly 
called Durhams, from the English county in which 
the breed originated. These animals were de- 
veloped by improving the Teeswater and Holder- 
ness cattle with slight admixtures of Dutch bulls 
and Galloways. Shorthorns had already been in- 
troduced into this country about 1790, and impor- 
tations have occurred with great frequency since 
18 1 5. Among prominent early breeders of Short- 
horns in this country, we have Lewis F. Allen and 
William Warfield 

At present, Shorthorns are found m every state 
and territory in the Union, and in every province 
of the Dominion of Canada. Their popularity is 
due largely to their fitness for the purpose for 
which they are raised : or, in other words, is based 
on a solid business foundation. Shorthorns are 
capable of readily adapting themselves to the dif- 
ferent conditions under which they are found. 
In regard to size and weight, they are somewhat 
superior to other beef breeds. They mature as 
early as other breeds, and may be brought to a 
proper market ripeness at the age of two and one- 
half years. They become fully mature and attain 
their complete size at the age of four years. 

The conditions under which they thrive best and 
yield the greatest profits are those which prevail 
in the central states, where good pastures are to be 

116 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



117 



obtained, and where suitable grains for fattening 
are abundant. Shorthorns are capable of making 
as good returns for their feed as any other breed. 
The meat is of good quahty, the percentage of 
bone and offal is small, but the grain of meat is 
not quite so fine as is observed in other breeds. 

One of the strong points in favor of Shorthorns 
is their milk yield. In fact, the Shorthorn is often 




A TYPICAL SHORTHORN 

A representative of the beef type. Note the square and deep 
sides. He is all beef and he knows it. 



referred to as a dual-purpose breed, yielding a 
good quality of beef, and at the same time giving 
a large quantity of milk. This quality has been 
considered of sufficient importance to perpetuate, 
and, as a result, we have a milking race of Short- 
horns. 




118 



BREEDS OF CATTLE II9 

More attention has been given to milking Short- 
horns in England than in this country, and this 
fact is due, perhaps, to a tendency among our breed- 
ers to go into specialties. This requires that atten- 
tion be given to securing one line of good qualities 
without regard to other matters, such as milk pro- 
duction. On account of the large amount of milk 
which Shorthorns yield, they are well adapted to 
localities where a combination of dairying and 
beef production can be operated most profitably. 

Shorthorns are also of great value, like other 
pure beef breeds, in grading up native scrub cat- 
tle, so as to produce a good quality of grade ani- 
mals for beef. The chief weaknesses of Shorthorns 
are lack of constitution and relative sterility as 
•observed in certain families, especially where care- 
less breeding or in-and-inbreeding have been 
practiced. 

The standard colors of the Shorthorns are red, 
white and roan, with red most in favor, and all 
shades of roan well liked; but white is somewhat 
in disfavor. The general form is large, compact 
and rectangular, with a smoothness of outline such 
as is required by the standard adopted for beef 
form. The body is long and deep, with parallel 
upper and lower lines and side lines. The head is 
relatively small and considerably narrower in the 
female than in the male. The horns are short, but 
longer and smaller in the female. 

Hereford — It is commonly considered that the 
Herefords are descended from some of the native 
cattle of Great Britain, and that they mixed, in 
their earlier history, with the Devon and the Sus- 
sex cow. Apparently all of these animals were at 
first nearly a solid red. A cross with white cat- 
tle gave a tendency to white markings, which has 



I20 FARM STOCK 

persisted in the Here fords. In the early history 
of the breeds the face was not pure white as at 
present. This characteristic, however, has been 
definitely fixed by long continued breeding. 

The Here fords were well known and had estab- 
lished a considerable reputation for themselves in 
many herds as early as 1835. They did not gain 
popularity, however, as fast as the Shorthorns, 
partly for the reason that their milking powers 
were somewhat inferior. Then, too, there was con- 
siderable controversy regarding the purity of 
white-faced and mottled faced animals^ so that 
their distribution was strongly checked. Appar- 
ently the first importation of Herefords into the 
United States was made by Henry Clay in 181 7. 

The Herefords gain rapidly, adapt themselves 
to all soil, climatic and feed conditions which pre- 
vail in the United States and do exceedingly well 
in the corn belt and the agricultural part of Can- 
ada. They are also particularly noted for their 
grazing ability on the range. The average size of 
the Hereford is slightly under that of the Short- 
horn, but they mature as early, being ready for 
beef at two and one-half years. In fact, recently, 
claim has been made that Herefords mature earlier 
than any other beef breed. The quality of the meat 
is good and the dressed weight satisfactory. In 
crossing the Herefords with other breeds, the best 
results have been obtained with Shorthorns and 
Galloways. 

The face, throat, chest, lower part of the body, 
legs and tip of the tail are white, all other parts 
being red. The red should neither be too dark nor 
too light. The skin is slightly thicker than that 
of the Shorthorn, but the form of the body is es- 
sentially the same. The horns are longer and 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 121 

more spreading, the position in which they are 
carried being a characteristic of the breed. 

Aberdeen Angus — This breed is variously known 
as Polled Angus, Polled Aberdeen, or Aberdeen 
Angus. In the early history of Scotland there 
seems to have been a number of polled cattle 
referred to a^ Angus Doddies, Buchans or Aber- 
deen Humlies. In Scotland, the approved color is 
black, but occasionally some white markings 
appear; such animals, however, are not used for 
breeding purposes. In Scotland the Angus is 
considered as having a finer bone, softer and silkier 
hair and shorter legs than the Galloway. It has 
long occupied in that country a conspicuous place 
in the fat stock and beef markets, on account of its 
excellent meat. The chief difference between the 
Angus and Galloway is in the thicker skin and 
larger and more shaggy hair of the Galloway. 

The Angus was first imported into the United 
States in 1873. The breed met with some preju- 
dice, on account of the fact that the field was al- 
ready occupied by Shorthorns and Herefords. It 
was necessary, therefore, for the champions of the 
Polled Angus to demonstrate the good points 
claimed for the Angus before this breed acquired 
any decided popularity. The Angus is, perhaps, 
best adapted to localities where moderate tempera- 
tures prevail and where comfortable quarters may 
be furnished for the winter. With regard to the 
value of the Angus on the western ranges, con- 
siderable difference of opinion prevails, and the 
statement has been frequently made that these cat- 
tle are too lazy to make a success under range con- 
ditions. It is impossible to give an authoritative 
opinion on this subject, since so much prejudice 
prevails in the matter; in fact, the champions of 



122 



FARM STOCK 



almost every breed claim that their particular breed 
is superior to all others as a rustler on the range. 
It is sufficient to say that many cattle raisers, 
throughout the range, from the northern to the 
southern boundary of the United States, have re- 
ported excellent results from the use of pure-bred 




AN ABERDEEN ANGUS HEIFER 

The strong lines and beef form stand out conspicuously. 
Even the novice knows this individual likes to make meat. 



and grade Angus on the range, and have found 
that Angus bulls are as capable of getting vigor- 
ous calves under range conditions as any other 
breed of bulls. 

In size, the Angus is perhaps slightly Inferior 
to the Shorthorn and Hereford, but on account of 
its short legs, it weighs more than its apparent size 
would indicate. The breeders in this country have 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 1 23 

given much attention to the early maturing quaH- 
ties of the Angus, with the result that this breed 
now matures as early as any other. In the eco- 
nomic use of food, the Angus is second to no 
other breed. The form is almost always symmetri- 
cal, and not patchy. In fact, the hair is so short 
that any irregularity of form would be apparent. 
During recent years, the Angus has carried away 
its share of prizes at fat stock shows, and in block 
contests. The quality of meat is usually recognized 
as superior to that of the Shorthorns and Here- 
fords, and nearly or quite equal to that of the West 
Highland and Galloway cattle. 

Galloway — This breed of cattle also comes from 
Scotland, and has occasionally been called Polled 
Scots. In Scotland the color is black with a 
brownish tinge. The head is short and wide, with 
a broad forehead and wide nostrils. The body 
must be deep, rounded and symmetrical, the skin 
mellow and thick, the hair soft, wavy, with a mossy 
undercoat; and wiry or curly hair is very objection- 
able. The Gallowa3^s are so called on account of 
their apparent origin in the province of Galloway 
and the breed is one of the oldest and purest of 
the beef type. 

Biggar has justly called attention to the fact 
that Galloway cattle have qualities which particu- 
larly fit them for western ranges. In the first place, 
they are possessed of unusual hardness, whereby 
they are able to endure a severe climate. Absence 
of horns is also a desirable quality, and in type 
they are very uniform. Finally, they possess the 
power of transmitting their good qualities to their 
offspring in a marked degree. A Gallowa}^ bull 
of good breeding will transmit a black color to 90 
per cent of his calves, and the hornless condition 



124 



FARM STOCK 



to from 95 to lOO per cent without regard to the 
;breed of the mother. 

While at present the Galloways are, perhaps, not 
so popular as either the Shorthorns, Herefords 
or Angus, they are at least entitled to the fourth 
place among the beef breeds, as pointed out by 
Shaw, and they are rapidly gaining in popularity. 
They are the hardiest of all beef breeds except the 




A PAIR OF GALLOWAYS 

The Galloways are rugged, hardy and can stand much 
exposure. They have been much appreciated in improving 
the range cattle of the West. 



West Highland cattle; their size is somewhat 
smaller than that of the breeds already considered, 
but their grazing qualities are of an exceedingly 
high order. They do not mature quite so early as 
the Shorthorns, Herefords or Angus, but they take 
on flesh smoothly and the meat has long been 
noted for its excellent quality; In fact, in this re- 
spect, they perhaps excel even the Angus. The 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I 25 

Galloways are excellent breeders and show an ex- 
tremely small percentage of sterility. The only 
serious objection which can be raised against them 
is their small milk yield. One of the peculiarly val- 
uable points of the Galloway, is their hide, which, 
when tanned, may be used for robes and fur coats. 
According to the most recent scale of points for the 
Galloway, this breed must be pure black, with a 
brownish tinge ; white markings on the feet, ankles, 
legs or any part of the body above the under line 
are very objectionable. 

J Vest Highland Cattle — West Highland cattle, 
also known simply as Highland cattle, came orig- 
inally from the western part of Scotland. The 
horns are large, sharp-pointed and upturned. The 
color is generally black, brindle or dun. The hide, 
as compared with the Angus and Galloways, is 
thick and covered with long, soft hair, considerably 
longer than that of the Galloways. There are sev- 
eral distinct varieties of West Highland cattle, the 
principal of which are the Kyloes, North High- 
landers, and the West Highlanders. In Scotland, 
this breed is not considered of much value for its 
milk, and, therefore, the calves are usually allowed 
to suck the cows. In hardiness, however, it is 
superior to all other breeds, and is, therefore, best 
adapted to severe climates like those of Alaska and 
northwest Canada, and some of the colder parts 
of the Rocky mountain ranges. The West High- 
land cattle are capable of not only enduring the 
cold, but also damp weather, and can find a living 
for themselves on either grass or brush. They 
mature rather slowly, and the quantity of the milk 
is very small. The meat, however, is considered 
especially excellent, and in the English markets 
commands the very highest price. 



126 FARM STOCK 

The color may vary considerably, black being 
very common, with a tendency at present toward a 
yellow or light dun ; brindle or red and black colors 
are also allowed. The form is that of the typical 
beef type, only smaller, and the body in proportion 
to its size is strong, deep, thick and exceedingly 
compact. 

Red Polled Cattle — Red Polled cattle are com- 
monly classified among the dual-purpose breeds and 
are sometimes called the Norfolk Polled breed or 
Norfolk Red Polls. According to the English 
standard, the color must be red, while the tip of 
the tail and under may be white. The head must 
be decidedly that of the beef type and absolutely 
hornless. The Red Polls are apparently the out- 
come of mixing both Suffolk and Norfolk Polled 
cattle. Improvement has been brought about by 
careful selection and good feeding. They were 
fi^rst imported into the United States in 1873. 
They stand between the Shorthorns and Devons in 
size, are excellent milkers, mature early and are 
noted for transforming their feed into milk during 
the period of lactation and into beef as soon as 
they are dry. 

Devon Cattle — This breed of cattle is one of the 
oldest and purest breeds of dual-purpose cattle 
which originated in Great Britain. In their early 
history, they were closely connected with the Here- 
ford and Sussex cattle. The breed is found in its 
purest and best form in North Dei^on. The Eng- 
lish standard for the Devon requires a small, clean 
head, with deerlike expression; thin, fine horns of 
a cream color, tipped with black, growing with a 
regular curve upward. The skin is somewhat 
loose and covered with hair of a soft, furry nature, 
inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I 27 

condition and full coat. The North Devon race 
of this breed is highly esteemed for beef and for 
draft purposes, but less for the dairy. Their milk 
has a high fat content, but the quantity is rather 
small. 

Devons were first introduced into the United 
States in 1817, after which importations took place 
with considerable rapidity. This breed is now 
found in nearly every state in the Union, but is 
more numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, 
Massachusetts and Wisconsin. Devons are not 
particularly popular in most parts of this country 
for dual-purpose cattle, for the reason that they 
are somewhat deficient in size for beef, and the milk 
yield is small. They are active grazers and the 
fat content of the milk is very high. They do not 
mature quite so early as the standard beef breeds. 
In crossing and grading up scrub stock, they are 
quite valuable. The bulls are able to transmit 
their rich, red color to a large percentage of off- 
spring. 

Polled Durhain — Polled Durham originated in 
Ohio, from two sources; viz., a cross between 
Shorthorn bulls and muley cows and pure hornless 
Shorthorns, which occasionally are seen as freaks 
in this breed. The Polled Durhams are becoming 
popular throughout the United States and have 
been exported to some extent abroad, where they 
are also making a name for themselves. They are 
most numerous in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Texas- 
and other central states. They were first exported 
to the Argentine Republic in 1894. , The appear- 
ance and points of the Polled Durhams are essen- 
tially the same as those of Shorthorns, but more 
attention has been given to milking qualities, so 




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BREEDS OF CATTLE I2g 

that this breed probably excels even the milking 
Shorthorns in the quantity of milk. 

Brown Swiss Cattle — Brown Swiss cattle are 
one of the standard breeds from Switzerland, and 
have become generally distributed throughout Eu- 
rope. They were first imported into the United 
States in 1869 by Mr Henry M. Clark of Belmont, 
Massachusetts, since which time many importations 
have been made. Brown Swiss cattle are well 
adapted to conditions where a combination of 
dair;fing and beef product is sought. The size is 
medium; cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,300 pounds. 
The quantity of milk is moderately large, and its 
fat content good. The Brown Swiss cattle are ex- 
cellent grazers, fatten readily when dry and the 
calves develop rapidly. They are fertile and ex- 
cellent breeders. According to the American stand- 
ard, the color is dark brown to light brown, or at 
some seasons of the 3^ear gray. A few splashes of 
white near the udder are not objectionable and a 
light stripe is allowed along the back. The hair 
between the horns is light, but not reddish. The 
horns are rather short, flattish and with black tips. 

Jersey — In point of numbers, the Jerseys are 
considerably in the lead of other dairy breeds in 
the United States. This breed originated in the 
Island of Jersey and has gradually spread through- 
out the dairy regions of Europe and America. A 
small number of Jerseys, then known as Alder- 
ne3^s, were introduced into the United States before 
1840, but large importations did not take place 
until after 1850. 

Jerseys are the smallest in size of all the noted 
dairy breeds, the cows ranging in weight from 700 
to 1,000 pounds, and the bulls from 1,200 to 1,800 
pounds. A deliberate attempt has been made to 



I30 



FARM STOCK 



increase the size of the Jerseys, so that in the 
United States they are somewhat larger than in 
their native island. The color of the Jerseys varies 
extremely, showing all shades of brown, even to 




A GREAT JERSEY COW 

Adelaide of St. Lambert is a typical specimen of her 
race. The fine head, thick neck, large udder and prominent 
milk veins are all indicative of dairy quality and tempera- 
ment. In addition to this, the fine skin, silken hair and neat 
bone are all qualities of superior breeding. 



black, and various shades of yellow, fawn, tan and 
cream; mouse color, light red and brindle are also 
observed. The head of the Jersey is small and 
usually dished, and the muzzle, including the upper 
lip, shows a black or dark red color. This at once 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I3I 

distinguishes the Jersey from the Guernsey, which 
has a tendency to show a buff color about the head. 

Many breeders prefer sohd colors in Jerseys. 
The majority of this breed are variously marked. 
The udder is of good size and ordinarily hangs 
lower than in Ayrshires, while the milk veins are 
well developed. Jerseys are likely to be irregular 
and angular in outline, rather quick and graceful 
in movement and deerlike in appearance. They 
are nervous and excitable, but when carefully 
treated, are docile and easily managed. The mat- 
ter of temperament in all dairy cows may be said 
to be largely a question of breeding and treatment. 

i\Iuch effort has been made in America to in- 
crease the milk yield of Jerseys while maintaining 
its high fat content. Jersey cows frequently give 
three to four gallons a day, and many Jerseys pro- 
duce 300 pounds or more of butter annually. A 
few animals under careful test have yielded from 
9,000 to nearly 17,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
The amount of fat in the milk is usually from 4 
to 5 per cent, and sometimes higher. 

Guernsey — This breed originated in another of 
the Channel islands, known as the Island of Guern- 
sey, and has practically the same origin and his- 
tory as the Jersey. In the development of the 
Guernseys, however, more of the original character- 
istics of the parent stock from Normandy have 
been preserved. At present, however, the Guern- 
seys closely resemble the Jerseys in their general 
conformation and appearance. 

The Guernseys were first introduced Into the 
United States, in numbers, in about 1850, being 
grouped together with the Jerseys at that time 
under the name of Alderneys. Between 1870 and 
1875 the Guernsey was recognized as a distinct 



132 FARM STOCK 

breed in this country. The head of the Guernsey 
is long, the neck slender, the body large and deep 
and the flanks thin. The color is light yellow and 
orange or buff iDredominating, with considerable 
white in patches on the body and legs. Dark colors 
approaching brown are seen on some cows and 




QUEEN OF THE BARNYARD 

This Guernsey cow shows the dairy type very conspicuously. 
No one questions her rank. 

more frequently on the bulls. The muzzle is almost 
buff or flesh color. The horns are small, curved 
and waxy, often showing a rich yellow at the base. 
One of the distinguishing characteristics of the 
Guernsey is the large secretion of yellow coloring 
matter throughout the skin, but especially where 
the hair is white around the ears, eyes and udder. 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I 33 

The udder and teats are well shaped. While the 
Guernsey is of nervous temperament, the cows are 
gentle under proper management, and the bulls 
are probably less likely to become vicious than Jer- 
sey bulls. 

The Guernseys are economic feeders and excel- 
lent butter producers, the milk often showing from 
5 to 6 per cent of fat. They are especially recom- 
mended by Alvord and others for butter cows and 
for the production of market milk, where quality 
secures a high price. They show great power of 
assimilating feed and converting it into milk, but 
do not endure excessive forcing. Guernsey cows 
average about i,ooo pounds or a little more in 
weight, and being slighth^ larger than the Jerseys, 
may be expected to give more milk than the latter. 
On the farm a good Guernsey may be expected to 
produce 5,000 pounds of milk, or 300 pounds of 
butter, without high feeding. In one case a herd 
of 104 cows averaged 318 pounds of butter each 
a year. Recently a Guernsey cow in Wisconsin 
made a new world's butter record of 1,000 pounds 
a year, under a carefully supervised test. 

Ayrshire — This breed of dairy cows originated 
in the county of A3^rshire, in the southwestern part 
o{ Scotland, and was brought to its present fixed 
form by careful breeding in that country. 

Ayrshires were first brought to New York in 
1822, and began to be imported In considerable 
numbers about the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. With the exception of the Kerry cow, no 
other breed of dairy cattle can excel the Ayrshire in 
obtaining a subsistence and thriving well on scant 
pasture and upon the coarsest of forage. "The 
natural hardihood of constitution renders these cat- 
tle admirably adapted to grazing on broken and 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I35 

rugged pastures and in sterner weather than would 
be conducive to the well-being of cows of some 
other breed." The purpose of breeding in the Ayr- 
shire has been to secure an animal which will give 
a large milk yield without extravagance of feed- 
ing, but this breed, wdiile showing the greatest 
economy in the utilization of feed, responds 
promptly to liberal feeding. 

The Ayrshire cow weighs from 900 to 1,100 
pounds, and the bull from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds. 
They are short of leg, with 'small bone and active 
movement. The general form is good, without 
any weakness in the forequarters, but with an un- 
usually strong development of the hindquarters. 
They do not carry any extra flesh during the period 
of lactation. The face is in most cases long and 
straight, and the horns curve outward, then in- 
ward and up, with the tips inclined backward. The 
muzzle is usually black, although white is permis- 
sible. The prevailing color is red and white in 
spots, not mixed, with a tendency at present toward 
more white. The red is bright and is frequently 
compared to that of the shell of a horse-chestnut. 
The udder of the Ayrshire is somewhat character- 
istic, being flattened from side to side and extend- 
ing far forward and backward. The teats are 
small and tend rather to a cylindrical than a conical 
form. The Ayrshire is nervous and the cows some- 
times show a tendency to be quarrelsome, but the 
bulls are not particularly vicious. 

In good hands, a herd of Ayrshires should aver- 
age 5,500 pounds of milk a head annually. In 
some noted herds, the average yield has reached 
nearly 7,000 pounds, and many cows have given 
from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds a year. The milk 
fat averages about 4 per cent, and the amount 




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BREEDS OF CATTLE I 37 

of butter in good herds should run from 300 to 320 
pounds each a year. The milk of the Ayrshire is 
not especially rich in fat, but is above the aver- 
age of all dairy cows. 

With regard to distribution of the breeds thus 
far considered, Jerseys are found in all parts of the 
United States, but are kept most numerously in 
the eastern and middle states and less extensively 
in the West and South. The Guernseys, likewise, 
are most extensively maintained in New England, 
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wiscon- 
sin, while the Ayrshires are most numerous in New 
York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hamp- 
shire, and less frequently observed in the central 
states and west of the Mississippi. 

Holstein — The black and white cattle of Hol- 
land, or the Holsteins, are one of the very oldest 
of dairy breeds. According to some of the cham- 
pions of the Holsteins, this breed can be traced 
back for 2,000 years in the territory where it orig- 
inated. Holland has long been noted for its dairy 
industry, and the Holsteins and Dutch Belted are 
its two famous dairy breeds. Holsteins have also 
been referred to as Holland cattle, North Holland- 
ers, Dutch cattle, Dutch Friesians, Holstein 
Friesians and by other names. The large frame, 
relatively heavy bone, silken coat, remarkable docil- 
ity and enormous milk yield of the Holsteins are 
commonly referred to as due in part to their origin 
in the fertile plains of Holland. It appears that 
the early Dutch settlers in America brought their 
cattle with them, but no large, well-known im- 
portations took place until about 1850. The 
characteristics of the Holsteins are large size and 
contrasting colors, jet black and pure white. 



138 FARM STOCK 

The weight of the Holstein cows ranges from 
1,200 to 1,500 pounds, and the bulls often weigh 
2,500. The black predominates in some animals 
and the white in others. The color of the animal, 
as a whole, may, therefore, be either white spots on 
a black background or black spots on a white back- 
ground. In America, breeders show a tendency to 
favor black rather than white. The arrangement 
of the spots varies in different animals, but the 
black and white are never mixed. As just indi- 
cated, the Holsteins are the largest of all dairy cat- 
tle. The neck is long and slender, the back line 
level, the hips broad and the legs relatively long. 
The udder is large and frequently of phenomenal 
size, with prominent milk veins and cone shape 
teats. 

Both cows and bulls are exceptionally gentle and 
docile. This breed shows great constitutional 
vigor. The calves are large at birth and grow 
rapidly, maturing at an early age. Holsteins can 
utilize profitably more feed than any other breed of 
dairy cows and the milk yield corresponds to the 
abundance and quality of the feed. There are au- 
thentic instances of cows yielding 100 pounds of 
milk or more a day, and a yield of five to seven 
gallons a day is regarded as an average perform- 
ance, the average annual yield being from 7,500 to 
8,000 pounds. In a few instances, cows have given 
from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds in a year. The milk 
does not average as high in butter fat as that of 
most other breeds, but with exceptional cows the 
fat content is high. In point of numbers, the Hol- 
steins are second only to the Jerseys in the United 
States and are kept in every state and territory in 
the Union. They are most numerous in New 



BREEDS OF CATTLE I 39 

York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois and 
Iowa, about in the order named. 

Dutch Belted — The Holsteins and Dutch Belted, 
as already indicated, both come from Holland and 
probably have a common origin, the colors being 
sharply contrasted black and white in both breeds. 
While, however, the black and white are irregularly 
arranged in patches on the Holsteins, these colors 
are placed with great regularity on the Dutch 
Belted cattle. The animals of this breed are ^ jet 
black, with a broad belt of pure white encircling 
the central part of the body. This belt varies in 
width, but seldom reaches the shoulder blade or 
hip. According to modern standards, no white is 
permitted except in the belt. 

In size, Dutch Belted cattle are about equal to 
the Ayrshires; occasionally individual animals are 
slightly larger. In Holland a deliberate attempt has 
been made to keep this breed almost entirely under 
the control of the nobility. Partly for this rea- 
son the breed is not numerous, either in Europe or 
in America. It was first introduced into New York 
about 1838, but may possibly have been brought 
over by the settlers somewhat earlier. 

The average weight of cows is from i,ooo to 
1,200 pounds and bulls weigh about i,8oo. The 
milk production of Dutch Belted is nearly equal to 
that of Holsteins, and the quality is about the same. 
They are good feeders, maturing at a fairly early 
age, but are probably not quite so vigorous as Hol- 
steins. 




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140 



CHAPTER XII. 
The Business of Dairying 

There is a sentiment abroad that dairying is 
becoming" unpopular with many, and there is less 
inclination among young men to engage in it. 
If this be so, it is time dairymen took hold of this 
matter to raise the standard of dairy intelligence 
and education up to a point where it will be popu- 
lar. The door must he opened to the boys and 
girls of this country so invitingly, with so much of 
interest and profit in sight, that they will without 
question become our future citizen farmers. We 
cannot expect much change in those with settled 
opinions. While we may not change much, we 
have it in our power to promote and institute a 
change, an uplift, that shall be a power for good 
to those who come after us. The door must be 
opened wide, and the light made so clear, it will be 
recognized that getting a start and winning suc- 
cess in life does not imply that one must leave the 
farm. It must be shown that a man may by intel- 
ligent practice have a farm, high producing dairy 
stock, and may know about feeds and feeding and 
produce the best; but it implies study, comparison, 
and gathering the best information and applying it. 

Must Study Your Business — The man who 
refuses to educate and broaden his mind along his 
business, who pins his faith to the reckon and guess, 
will always be found milking mixed-bred cows, in 
which the failures are the most prolific, will be 
feeding everything if it is cheap, and believing that 
all failures are due to the factory and market end 



142 FARM STOCK 

of his business. As one has expressed it, too many 
men go through hfe mistaking their gizzards for 
their heads. The moment a man sees and puts 
into practice the idea that he can cheapen the cost 
and increase the excellence of an article, that 
moment he has opened the door to enlarged oppor- 
tunities. 

DAIRY FARMING 

Dairying has long been assuming more and 
more importance as a line of animal industry, keep- 
ing pace in this respect with the growth of large 
cities and the consequent demand for great quan- 
tities of milk and other forms of dairy products. 
In the northern and western states, particularly, 
this development of dairying has been most pro- 
nounced. In the early history of the United States, 
dairying was of far less importance, relatively, 
than at present, largely for the reason that there 
was no steady market for large quantities of dairy 
products and consequently no inducement for 
farmers to keep a large number of cows for dairy 
purposes. The tendency then was for each farm- 
er to milk as many cows as were required for 
the production of the milk, butter and cheese which 
he needed for his own family. Gradually, how- 
ever, the concentration of population in large cities 
furnished the demand for more dairy products and 
this was the business reason for the extensive de- 
velopment which has taken place along this line. 

Dairy Indiistry is Large — The importance of the 
dairy industry is seen not only from the number of 
dairy cows and their value, but from the extent of 
dairy products; thus, according to the most recent 
available statistics, farmers sell annually about 2,- 
250,000,000 gallons of milk, and butter and cheese, 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I43 

factories buy annually about 1,500,000,000 gallons 
of milk. Within recent years, the development of 
creameries on a co-operative or some other basis 
has been rapid and extensive. They have naturally 
used large quantities of milk, as just indicated, in 
the manufacture of butter. Contrary to the v^ide- 
spread notion, however, there is more than twice 
as much butter made on farms at the present time 
as in factories, the amounts being 1,072,000,000 
pounds on the farms, annually, and 420,000,000 
pounds in the factories. The opposite tendency is 
observed in cheese making. The process of cheese 
making is somewhat more elaborate than that of 
butter making and requires more skill and expe- 
rience, as well as a more elaborate equipment in 
order to produce a first-class article. 

Cows for Human Food — Good dairy cows pro- 
duce human food in the form of milk much more 
economically than food products can be obtained 
in the form of beef, pork or mutton. Naturally, 
the cost of production of milk and butter varies 
greatly in different localities, according to the price 
of farm labor and feeding stuffs, but the relative 
economy of dairy and beef production varies in the 
same direction in nearly all localities. The only 
apparent exceptions to this rule are found in two 
extreme types of farming conditions found on the 
western ranges and in the neighborhood of large 
eastern cities. On the western ranges the distance 
from the market is so great that milk could not be 
delivered in a satisfactory condition and dairying 
is practically impossible. In the neighborhood of 
large eastern cities, on the other hand, the price of 
land and the cost of feeding stuffs are so high that 
the production of beef becomes altogether too ex- 
pensive as compared with milk production. The 



144 FARM STOCK 

amount of feed required for the production of a 
pound of modern beef steers is nearly, if not quite, 
ten times as great as the amount of feed necessary 
for the production of a pound of milk by the mod- 
ern dairy cow. This should indicate without argu- 
ment the great difference in the relative economy of 
beef and milk production in localities where condi- 




THE FOUNDATION OF SUCCESS 

Behind dairy success is well-bred and well-raised young 
stock. These must be thrifty, healthy and good eaters. 

tions are favorable for both beef and dairy indus- 
tries. 

Building the Dairy Herd — In making a start in 
the dairy business, the first great problem is the 
formation of the dairy herd. In this operation the 
selection of the cows and the bull to head the herd 
is by no means an unimportant matter. It is ordi- 
narily to be recommended that the herd should not 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I45 

be composed of different breeds, but should con- 
tain only one pure breed or grade of animals based 
on that breed. In practice, however, dairy cows 
should be selected for their individual record 
rather than for their pedigree, color or form. For 
dairy purposes, dairy breeds should be chosen 
rather than beef breeds, for the reason that they 
produce milk fat rather than body fat from their 
food ; while beef cattle, on the other hand, are likely 
to become fat under forced feeding without in- 
creasing to a corresponding degree their milk yield. 
No one, however, should allow either breed or type 
to determine entirely his choice of cows for his 
dairy herd. The prime requisite is that they shall 
give a large quantity and a good quality of milk. 

CO-OPERATIVE BREEDING 

Co-operative breeding, or community breeding, 
gives promise of great achievements in the future. 
Our great dairy industry is carried on largely in 
the dark. Very few owners of dairy herds know 
with an}^ certainty what their herds are doing, and 
whether they are kept at a profit or a loss few 
can tell. Sires of no particular breed, immature, 
and utterly worthless, are often used. If a com- 
munity will form an association, study the breeds 
and carefully select the breed they like best and is 
best suited to their conditions and that they will be 
willing to stand by ever after, then they will have 
laid a sure foundation for future prosperity. 

This much we know, that when an association 
is formed, interest is aroused, and a desire for 
better things is inspired. . Pure-bred sires are 
bought, and if a man feels too poor to buy a good 
animal alone, two or three will go in together and 




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THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I47 

buy. As good sires are bought, exchanges are 
made, so a choice animal can be kept near the same 
locahty during the entire period of his usefulness. 

A First Requisite is a Good Secretary — The sec- 
retary should be a live business man, be in touch 
with every member; he should know what stock 
each one has, and what he desires to have. 
Through him, exchanges arc made, buyer and 
seller brought together. AMien they have stock to 
sell he carries advertising for the whole associa- 
tion, thus lessening the expense. He should have 
the registry books of the breed, so a prospective 
animal can be traced and its worth determined. 

When animals are for sale they are reported to 
the secretary, so a buyer can find out by him just 
what can be bought, and where it can be bought, 
and a buyer will go to such a place, when he would 
not go from house to house in the uncertainty of 
finding what he wanted. In shipping there is also 
an advantage, as animals can be shipped much 
cheaper in car lots than singly. 

It opens the way for cow testing associations, 
and they begin to test and weigh each cow, and 
weed out the least profitable ones. It promotes 
friendliness, for when two members come together, 
the common interest will bring up the subject, 
and experiences and knowledge will be exchanged. 
Speakers of experience can be secured, and the 
best knowledge gained. The demand for good 
stock is stronger than ever before. 

A Noted Example — Lake Mills, Wisconsin, 
is noted the world over for its cattle, because 
breeders have been working together raising one 
breed. A buyer has large numbers to pick from, 
he can buy in large lots, and he can get what he 
wants, and he is willing to pay the price. This is 



148 FARM STOCK 

business; straight, honest, legitimate business. It 
will give an uplift to the farmer himself, it will 
bring comforts to his family, and education to 
his children. 

Seest thou a man diligent in his business, 
He shall stand before kings. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY COW 

The dairy cow is fed primarily for one purpose : 
that milk may be produced. Since milk is so largely 
formed of the protein elements of the food, it fol- 
lows that the dairyman must have the best that can 
be secured to supply this kind of ration. Conse- 
quently, the old-fashioned way of feeding any sort 
of feed will no longer prove profitable; especially 
since lands have increased in value, since labor has 
gone up higher, and more remunerative returns 
have become necesssary to the farmer. It used to 
be the custom to turn the cow into the pasture in 
early spring, in a somewhat depleted condition. At 
this period she freshened and then for five or six 
months produced milk abundantly and satis factor- 
il}^ This was because pasture grass was a bal- 
anced feed and supplied her with the necessary 
constituents for the production of milk and butter 
food. Then in the fall, as the pasture began to 
dry up, her milk yield decreased and continued so 
throughout the winter. The winter feeds were 
largely corn fodder, straw and some ground feed, 
like wheat, bran or corn. Naturally, under these 
conditions she never did her best. With the devel- 
opment of the dairy industry there gradually spread 
over the country a better knowledge of the prin- 
ciples and methods of feeding, as they concern the 
dairy cow. As a result, corn has been relegated to 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I49 

the background as unnecessary and even undesir- 
able as feed for cows, except in its use as ensilage. 

So the silo has come and is sure to stay. It of- 
fers the best means of corn consumption for dairy 
cows that we have. Corn ensilage possesses feed- 
ing value of much merit and it possesses at the 
same time the succulence and juices, two things 
very essential in maintaining the milk flow during 
the winter months. But corn ensilage in itself is 
not a balanced feed. While it is succulent, it is 
still lacking in nitrogenous constituents. It stimu- 
lates milk flow, but it does not provide the where- 
with to make milk; hence they must be fed 
something that supplies this feeding constituent. 
Fortunately, the range is very wide. 

In the southern states cottonseed meal is right at 
hand ; in the West are the by-products of the cereal 
factories; and transportation is so rapid that the 
eastern dairyman can secure protein feeds from the 
North and West at no great cost. But in all sec- 
tions corn ensilage may be balanced within reason 
by clover and alfalfa, and no dairy farm is complete 
in its plan, equipment and management if it does 
not include one or both of these great legume 
crops. 

To supply the grain side of the ration you will 
need to go a long way in order to find any feed 
more satisfactory than the cottonseed meal. Com- 
pared to its commercial price, its value is exceed- 
ingly high, and of the various feeds on the market 
cottonseed meal invariably provides protein at a 
less cost per digestible pound than any other food. 
Cottonseed meal is generally available throughout 
the country. Large quantities of it, however, 
ought not to be fed. Three to five pounds for eight 
or nine months in a year should cover the ground. 




150 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I5I 

The remaining part of the daily ration and the re- 
maining- months of the year should be supplied 
through the use of some other feed or feeds ; linseed 
meal, wheat bran, and others of equal worth and 
value may be used for this purpose. 

In producing dairy feeds you ought to make a 
practice of always considering the cost of the feed 
from the standpoint of its digestible nutrients. Too 
often feeding stuffs have been purchased by name 
rather than because of merit. The point to consider 
is, How many pounds of digestible nutrients do I 
get in a ton of this feed, and what does each pound 
of digestible protein cost me? Figured on that 
basis many dollars will be saved in the feed bill and 
more satisfactory results will be had when the 
profits are figured up at the end of the month or 
year. 

HANDLING A HERD FOR MARKET MILK 

In making milk for the retail trade the producer 
must consider carefully the demands of the trade. 
The consumer is yearly becoming better educated as 
to what constitutes good milk and as to the dangers 
which are often found in milk when carelessly pro- 
duced and handled. In general, the consumer is 
growing more critical in his demands for high- 
grade farm products and is willing to pay a fair 
price if he can have what he wants. The farmer 
must study the demands of the higher class of trade 
and strive to meet them, or else expect low prices 
for products of only ordinary to fair trade. 

In buying for family consumption the purchaser 
wants milk of good flavor, of a fair degree of rich- 
ness and of good color. Bad flavor is mainly the 
result of improper care in handling the milk during 



152 FARM STOCK 

and after milking-, although it is not infrequently 
caused by improper feeding and stabling. It fol- 
lows then that, whatever the breed, milk of good 
flavor cannot be produced except under cleanly and 
healthful conditions and under the exercise of good 
judgment as to the kinds and quantities of food to 
be used. Garlic in pastures will surely produce 
garlic flavors, and so will turnips or turnip leaves 
produce a turnip-like flavor. Silage when fed in 
large amounts will produce a fermentive flavor, 
just as it will produce a musty flavor if fed when in 
a state of partial decay. 

The Reason of Bad Silage — The objection of- 
fered to the use of silage by some milk shippers is 
based on its excessive use, or on the use of poor 
silage, coupled with the difliculty of controlling 
these points. While it is true that flavor depends 
mainly on the care used in producing and handling 
the milk, it is also true that milk to be of rich flavor 
must contain a fairly high percentage of fat. Milk 
which has a creamy flavor and consistency is highly 
prized by many people as a healthful drink. There 
are sanitariums where the chief food for nerve and 
brain-worn people is good, rich milk. 

In judging the richness of the milk in fats, the 
consumer is guided by the bulk of cream it will 
produce. The milk from some breeds does not give 
a large bulk of cream nor a well-defined cream line 
after being bottled for several hours. 

Color Important in Milk — But one point looked 
for in a good grade of milk is color. Usually there 
is a close relation in milk between color and rich- 
ness in fats. As a rule, a yellow color means milk 
rich in fats. I have seen striking instances where 
this was not the case, but so usually does the belief 
prevail that a yellow color in milk denotes richness 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 53 

that it is wise to take notice of. Lack of color and 
lack of creaminess are firmly associated in nearly 
everyone's mind with poor quality, and it is a good 
business point for the farmer who retails milk to be 
guided by it in selecting his cows. It must be 
admitted, too, that a decidedly yellow color in the 
milk does give it a more pleasing appearance than 
when such color is lacking. 

Get a Good Bull — In selecting the foundation 
for a herd, the dairyman should not hesitate to pay 
well for a bull that will stamp upon his female 
progeny the power to give quantity, color and rich- 
ness in the product. In selecting females only the 
best should be used for building up the herd. It 
seems to be a rule in breeding that the more mixed 
the blood of the female the greater will be the in- 
fluence of the male. In selecting the females, care 
should be taken to get those which have no tendency 
to beefiness. By selecting foundation stock in this 
way, and by rearing the best of the offspring, a val- 
uable herd for producing high-grade market milk 
may be built up in a comparatively short time. 

PROTECT DAIRY COWS FROM FLIES 

The season of midsummer is one of the most 
trying times for the dairy farmer and then more 
than at any time of the year is it necessary to use 
special care with the dairy herd. During the time 
of harvest, when flies, heat and mosquitoes make 
life a burden for the old cow, she also has to cope 
with dry, short pasture and a very busy keeper. I 
not only sympathize with the old cow, but also 
have some feeling left for her keeper ; for who can 
forget the milking during the fly season, when 
the temperature is very high and one is tired out 




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THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 155 

after a hard day's work? Certainly this is not 
an easy task, but the remedy we are anxious to 
hear, and I do not know as I can give a sure cure 
for this complaint. In many ways life can be made 
easier for both man and beast if a few things are 
complied with. 

In the first place, you should bear in mind that 
cows freshening in the spring will have to be milked 
during the winter if they are to be made profitable, 
and if they are neglected during the fly season and 
their milk flow cut down, the chances are they will 
be strippers the balance of the lactation period. 
Therefore, it is very important from an economical 
standpoint to use special care during the hot sum- 
mer months. If the cow switches our face instead 
of her side, and kicks over a pail occasionally, it 
should remind us that it is better often to practice 
winter dairying and see to it that the bulk of our 
cows freshen in the fall and early winter. 

It is true also that a darkened stable is a more 
convenient place in which to milk than in the cow- 
yard or the open shed. You might also bear in 
mind that there are on the market many kinds of fly 
removers, which can be sprayed on at little cost at 
milking time. If this expense is considered too 
high, a light burlap cow blanket will greatly help 
matters; this may be thrown over the cow at milk- 
ing time. I have found that by darkening the 
barn the flies give me little trouble during milking 
time. This can be greatly improved by first using, 
a strong disinfective spray, or some material that 
will repel flies. Use this freely about the stalls, 
gutters and windows, and upon everything, so that 
the flies that are in the barn may go out; then 
darken the barn and little trouble will be expe- 
rienced. Cows can stand the attacks of flies much 



156 



FARM STOCK 



better if they have in the pasture some place where 
they can feed among the underbrush. This is 
their natural way of fighting flies; and they will 
take very kindly to the hazel brush patch if it is 
in their pasture. 



CLASSIFYING MILK FOR 
PURPOSES 



MARKET 



Pasteurization has not solved the problem of 
clean milk commercially, for the reason that it is 




SANITARY MILK 

Care at milking time is essential if a clean, sanitary product 
is to be obtained. 



expensive, requiring apparatus and labor; it is 
rarely don€ with sufficient care to render the milk 
safe; it does not take the filth out of the milk, 
and it tends to promote carelessness all along 
the line. Modern methods call for the exclu- 
sion of bacteria by cleanliness rather than by 
destruction by heat, and show that dirty milk is 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 



0/ 



death to babies and dangerous to man. Pasteurized 
milk is a fairly satisfactory substitute where clean 
milk cannot be obtained, and where the process is 
carried on under the direction of boards of health 
it is reasonably safe. The milk committee in 
Washington, appointed by the district commission- 
ers to report on the milk supply of that city, recom- 
mended that there be recognized by law three 
grades of milk, as follows : 

Class I. Certified milk to be produced under 
all conditions necessary to avoid infection. I will 
not attempt to outline these conditions here, fur- 
ther than to say that the cows must be tuberculin 
tested and free from disease; that the temperature 
of the milk must not exceed 50 degrees, when 
delivered, by chemical and bacteriological analysis; 
that the milk must not contain more than 10,000 
bacteria to the cubic centimeter, and must not be 
n.iore than 12 hours old when delivered. This class 
of milk to be certified by the health ofhce of the 
District of Columbia. 

Class 2. Inspected milk. To be limited to 
clean, raw milk from healthy cows as determined 
by the tuberculin test and physical examination. 
The cows to be fed, watered, housed and milked 
under good conditions, but not necessarily equal to 
the conditions provided in class i. The milk to 
be kept at a temperature not exceeding 50 degrees 
until delivered to the consumer, and to contain 
not more than 100,000 bacteria to the cubic centi- 
meter. 

Class 3. Pasteurized milk. To include all 
milk from dairies not able to comply with the re- 
quirements of classes i and 2 to be pasteurized 
under the supervision of the board of health. This 
milk to be kept at all times at a temperature not 



158 FARM STOCK 

exceeding 60 degrees while in transit to the pas- 
teurizing plant and at a temperature not exceeding 
50 degrees when delivered to the consumer. The 
cows must not show physical signs of tuberculosis 
or any disease. 

We may have gone too far or been too radical 
on some points in this milk question, but when it 
comes to preserving the lives of infants, it is a 
question whether we have gone far enough. It is 
a crusade for the children, and if by any means we 
can lower the fearful death rate, who will refuse 
to lend his aid and give all possible assistance? 
The basis upon which this question rests is hygienic 
economics. This lesson is being learned very 
rapidly at the present time. We are learning that 
bad air, bad water, bad sewerage, bad housing, 
bad streets, bad milk or bad food of any kind are 
not cheap in the long run and that in the end they 
prove a heavy expense to the individual or com- 
munity. 

CARE OF MILK ON THE FARM 

Whether milk is delivered promptly or held some 
time before delivery, it needs particular care. The 
best dairymen provide for this purpose a room near 
the stable, but separated from it so as to exclude 
dust and unpleasant odors. As soon as a pailful 
of milk has been drawn from the cow^s, it is carried 
to the milk room, poured through a fine strainer, 
and cooled with an apparatus made of thin meal 
and containing cold water. The milk flows over the 
outside of it in a thin sheet. After 20 or 40 quarts 
have been thus treated a shipping can is filled and 
set in cold water, or the milk is bottled and kept 
cold until needed. 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 59 

Some farmers do not use this care, but strain 
the milk directly into a large can, which stands in 
any convenient place, usually within the stable. 
When the can is filled it is placed, as soon as con- 
venient, in a tub of cold water and stirred until 
partly cooled, then left with the cover ajar until 
wanted for delivery. 

Milk Easily Absorbs Odors — Persons handling 
milk in this way do not appreciate how sensitive 




A TASTY MILK HOUSE 

The old. dirty, dilapidated, slonoy milk house has given 
way to modern buildings that permit of thorough cleanli- 
ness, and which are sanitary in every waj'. 

the fluid is to surroundings and how quickly it will 
absorb injurious odors. It is fortunate for con- 
sumers that milk shows so plainly when it has 
been carelessly handled. If puixhasers are suf- 
ficiently watchful they can avoid being supplied 
with milk which has been improperly cared for. A 
dairyman should always bear in mind that milk is 
food, and he should not leave it unnecessarily in 
any place where he would be unwilling to have his 
own food left an equal length of time. 



i6o 



FARM STOCK 



In some cases the milk delivered in the morning 
is that of the previous evening, well cooled and 
kept in a cold place, and the milk delivered in the 
afternoon is the morning product similarly treated. 
This is a much better method than the delivery of 
perfectly fresh, warm milk. When but one delivery 
is made each day, and that in the morning, the 




A GOOD WAY TO DRY AND AIR MILK CANS 
Air and sunlight are death to all kinds of germs. 

production of the same morning and the previous 
evening is usually distributed. 

Many dairymen do this when they drive directly 
from the farm to the places of delivery, except 
when it is necessary to start before the hour of 
milking; then the milk of the morning and evening 
of the previous day is taken. During the hottest 
weather, the evening's milk is sometimes delivered 
by itself early in the morning, and the supply of the 
same morning is served later. 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING l6l 

MAKING CHEESE AT HOME 

Use milk three or four hours old that has been 
held at 70 degrees and which has not as yet com- 
menced to sour. Heat to about 86 degrees, add 
commercial rennet at the rate of three ounces or 
85 cc (cubic centimeters) to 1,000 pounds of milk. 
Allow to coagulate for about 30 to 40 minutes, 
break the curd with a spoon or three-cornered stick 
until the particles are the size of the end of the 
small finger; heat slowly to about 100 degrees, 
stirring almost constantly in the meanwhile, and 
allow to stand at 100 degrees until the curd becomes 
firm. 

A few experiments along this line will show 
about how firm the curd needs to be, but roughly it 
may be stated that it will require about 2>4 hours 
from the time the curd is broken. Drain off the 
whey, stir the curd for 15 or 20 minutes, allowing 
it to cool slowly. Salt at the rate of 2>^ pounds salt 
per 1,000 pounds milk; put in a mold, square or 
round, as desired, and apply considerable pressure. 
The amount of pressure required is rather indefi- 
nite, but should not be less than 100 pounds to each 
cheese. The utensils required are a thermometer, 
a tin vessel for heating and a measure for meas- 
uring the rennet extract. All of these articles, in- 
cluding the rennet extract, can be purchased from 
any supply house. 

KEEPING UP THE MILK FLOW 

It is a matter of importance that the flow of milk 
be kept up to the highest possible point. It is too 
often the case that the matter is not attended to on 
account of the press of work during haying and 
harvest. The feed gets too short in the pasture, 



1 62 FARM STOCK 

the flies bother the cows, and as the amount of milk 
is reduced a little each day it passes unnoticed until 
it is too late to remedy the matter. 

If supplemental feed has been provided in the 
shape of oats and peas, it is well to begin feeding 
them as soon as a shrinkage is discovered. In the 
absence of such feed, green clover, cut and put in 
the manger for the cows to eat when they come in 
at night, makes a good substitute. If fodder corn 




PART OF A DAIRY PLANT 

In the illustration is seen the cement silo, a permanent 
improvement of the dairy farm. The silo is steadily in- 
creasing its popularity. 

'was sown or planted thickly for the same purpose, 
one can begin on it soon after the tassels appear. 
I have noticed that the best results from it are ob- 
tained after the ears have formed and the kernels 
-are appproaching the glazing point. 

When I have had fodder corn to feed during the 
latter part of the summer, especially sweet corn, I 
have found that it was a saving of time to use it, 
for the cows relish the feed so well that they would 
come up for it at milking time. Those who now 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 163 

have a supply of silage to feed can meet the require- 
ments of the cows very easily, and they are then 
masters of the situation. The silage can be fed with 
the least extra trouble of any of the supplemental 
feeds. 

ALFALFA FEED FOR DAIRY COWS 

During the past few years many dairymen have 
investigated the merits of alfalfa. What you have 
found out about it has been sufficient inducement 
for you to attempt to supply your wants by grow- 
ing it on your own farm. Unfortunately for you, 
however, climatic and soil conditions offer a handi- 
cap which will be hard for you to overcome in the 
successful growth and harvesting of alfalfa. Our 
best posted men on alfalfa have named it the king 
of all forage crops for feeding purposes and the 
results of feeding tests prove that it has not been 
misnamed. Unlike other feeding material of the 
forage character, it contains that valuable food ele- 
ment known as protein, the milk producing 
material. 

Two equally important conditions confronting 
eastern dairymen are : ( i ) The ever-increasing de- 
mand for dairy products; (2) the insufficient sup- 
ply of good milk producing feeds to keep feed prices 
down to an economical basis, from the feeder's 
standpoint. It was the shortage of home-grown 
feeds and the lack of protein in natural farm grains 
that developed the necessity of utilizing commercial 
feeds to supply what the regular farm grains 
lacked, the milk producing material. 

I call your particular attention to the alfalfa that 
is grown out West and which is now being offered 
for sale in eastern markets. It offers you an ad- 
vantage you should not be slow in accepting by 




161 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 165 

adopting its use. Alfalfa contains more protein 
than wheat bran, and, as a basis of a feed for the 
dairy cow, it perhaps has no equal. 

Alfalfa Meal — How are eastern dairymen to be 
supplied with this alfalfa grown so far away in 
these arid sections ? My answer is that it is a mill- 
ing proposition, just the same as supplying you with 
wheat bran and concentrated feeds made from 
wheat, corn, oats and barley, all of which are pro- 
duced in surplus quantities throughout the middle 
west and far northwest. Alfalfa mills located in 
the arid producing sections will be even more neces- 
sary than wheat and corn mills, from the fact that 
the rate on alfalfa in the baled form is excessive, 
while in the milled form it will be reduced to the 
grain products rate basis, the same on which you 
are buying^ all other commercial feeds. 

COW FEEDING WHEN PASTURE IS SHORT 

A genuine aairy cow is a splendid machine for 
converting a variety of food products into milk, 
but oftentimes, especially during the busy fall, the 
operator fails to realize that the task of changing 
fuel is a severe test for the machine, and, as a 
result, often finds himself trying to repair the 
damage. 

Cows used to making milk from grass alone find 
a great difference in its palatability and nourishing 
qualities as the season advances, and, while they 
may not decrease the flow of milk as long as there 
is an abundance of grass, a careful survey of their 
general appearance will indicate that they are 
losing the bloom, the freshness, and possibly the 
vigor, that was so marked earlier in the season. 



l66 FARM STOCK 

Supplementing Pastures — The watchful herds- 
man needs no orders. He at once begins to supply 
the wants thus made known. He has found from 
experience that it is a costly practice to allow the 
milk system to draw from the needed physical 
vigor of the animal, and realizes, too, that the milk 
flow once checked is hard to restore. The alfalfa 
field is called upon to furnish a little greenery, 
else he tempts their appetites with green sweet 
corn fodder, second crop clover, cowpeas, a few 
potatoes, or, better yet, some silage; they are in- 
vited to nibble at some bran, corn meal, moistened 
beet pulp, or, if necessary, some brewers' grain, 
and if one mixture fails, others are tried until the 
trying fly season is passed and the needed rains 
flush the dry meadows and prompt the clover and 
timothy meadow to furnish a few welcome, suc- 
culent mouthfuls. 

Some Grain May he Fed — Even then the grain 
or selected-variety feeds are not removed entirely 
from the ration, for winter is coming and the 
cow's vigor can more easily be maintained and 
reinforced for the coming cold weather. Oats 
and pea hay may be tried ; the early corn fodder 
looks very tempting, and a few hills are cut and 
thrown over the fence and greatly relished by the 
milkers. The straw stack needs brushing down, 
and the chaff should not be left to sour or spoil, 
so the cows are given a romp in the stack yard. 

By this time the evenings are chilly and change- 
able, so the herdsman finds it profitable to keep 
the cows in the barn all night, and soon has them 
on a satisfying winter ration, which he changes 
occasionally for variety's sake. 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 6/ 

His COWS have not missed the change from 
grass to hay; they are healthy, vigorous and func- 
tional, and eat with relish the various fodders and 
grains which he has in store for them. The milk 
flow is increasing, rather than decreasing, and all 
bids fair to a profit-sharing season. 

Begin Before Cold Weather is at Hand — The 
wave of prosperity will not come to the farmer 
who is less watchful and who waits until cold 
weather before he begins feeding his winter 
forage. 

The grass-made flesh and vigor are lost during 
early fall; the milk check is scarcely worth while 
cashing; the animals have unsatisfying appetites, 
and refuse to respond, even if the herdsman allows 
them special excursions to the feed trough; all 
excess energy stored while the pasture was green 
was expended in trying to make milk out of dry, 
dormant grass, while the milk-making function 
could not be maintained when there were calls for 
the nourishment of the growing foetus. 

The milch cows are mere strippers during the 
greater portion of the winter, and most of the 
blame comes from a lack of care, feed and atten- 
tion during the critical period. It is well worth 
while to take simple precautions in tiding the milk 
cow over from her summer to winter ration. 

FEEDING DAIRY COWS IN WINTER 

The kind of food that will be fed to cows in 
milk, will, of course, be much governed by the pro- 
duction in any given locality. The aim should be, 
of course, to feed approximately a balanced ration. 
Opinions may differ somewhat, but not greatly, as 
to what a balanced ration may mean. On this 



1 68 



FARM STOCK 



point, however, divergence of opinion is not great. 
Where fertihty is in equihbrium nearly ah v^ill 
agree to the statement that the aim of every dairy- 
man should be to grow, as far as may be practi- 
cable, the food needed on his own farm. 

Food That Nearly All May Grow — There are 
certain foods that may be looked upon as standard 
for feeding the dairy cows. Nearly every dairy- 
man can grow them wherever he may be located, 
and because they are standard foods, he ought to 




HAULING IN THE SILAGE CORN 

Corn ensilage, where known, is highly prized. In time it will 
be considered a necessary feed on every stock farm. 



try to grow them. These include as roughage, 
plants of the clover family, as silage, corn in one 
or the other of its varieties, and as grain, a mix- 
ture of wheat and oats. Of course, in addition to 
these, many other foods will be grown, but these 
are of less importance than the foods named. 

Providing Clover — Wherever this beneficent 
plant can be grown it ought to be used with much 
freedom. The food furnished for cows represents 
only one element in its value. The benefit to the 
soil is always helpful, and in many instances great- 
ly so. This fact should never be lost sight of when 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 169 

taking into account the comparison in nutrients 
furnished by clover and other plants. 

Usually clover can be best grown in mixtures for 
dairy cows. This means that two or three varieties 
may be grown together. This not only adds to the 
yield, but also increases the value of the products. 
It would also seem correct to say that quite a sprin- 
kling of timothy improves a clover ration for dairy 
cows. It does so by helping to support the clover 
while it is growing and makes it easier to cure 
when the crop is out. Alfalfa will, of course, an- 
swer the same purpose as clover. Where neither 
may be had it may be quite possible to get vetch 
hay or cowpea. 

Providing Com Silage — No food can be grown 
in the United States that will provide so large a 
proportion of nutrients as corn. But the nutrients 
furnislied do not tell all the story. In addition to 
nutrients, when cured in the silo, its succulence is 
beneficial. It is helpful to the digestion. It also 
favors milk production. There are two advantages 
that it always will have over corn and fodder fed 
in the dry form. 

When the extent of the production that may be 
obtained from corn is considered, and when the 
ease with which it is fed is taken into account, 
it does seem, indeed, surprising that any persons 
engaged in dairying will be content without a silo. 

Fiirnishing Grain Food — Clover and corn fur- 
nish a fodder ration that cannot easily be improved 
upon for dairy cows. The grain complement is not 
always so easily obtained. Wheat and oats do 
not grow equally well in all parts of the country, 
but they do grow well over large areas. The first 
advantage from growing them together is the in- 
creased yields. The second advantage is that when 



170 



FARM STOCK 



grown in due admixture they furnish a suitable 
food. The third is that in very many instances 
they can be grown more cheaply than they can be 
bought. When silage from corn well grown is 
freely fed it is not necessary to add corn to the meal 
ration. 




DAIRYING AS A SIDE ISSUE 

In this case the cow is appreciated for her work in 
rraintaining the fertility of the land and for the money she 
brings in. 



Amount of Grain to Feed — Two factors should 
be taken into account when determining the amount 
of grain to feed. One is the extent to which clover 
or alfalfa is fed and the second is the production of 
the cow. The rule with some is to feed one pound 
of grain for every three pounds of milk produced. 
When clover or alfalfa form a large part of the 
ration it would seem reasonable to suppose that a 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I7I 

less quantity of grain would suffice than the 
amounts named above. 

DAIRYING: A BALANCE IN .FERTILITY 

Dairying is one of the most effective practices in 
agriculture for retaining and restoring the fertility 
of the soil. A great array of facts are on 
record that prove that soils, devoted to dairying, 
may be as fertile after centuries of farming as 
they were in their original state. In European 
countries, as well as in all parts of the United 
States, we find farms that once were abandoned 
because the soil fertility was exhausted ; it did not 
pay to farm them. As a last resort, dairying was 
introduced and the fertility was restored complete- 
ly. Many of these farms are even more fertile 
today than they were in the beginning; and so long 
as dairying is carried on, the}^ will continue to in- 
crease in fertility and productive power. 

Grain Fanning Exhausts the Soil; Dairying 
Does Not — In grain farming the fertility is re- 
moved from the farm by selling the grain. Ac- 
cording to Professor Woll of the Wisconsin experi- 
ment station approximately $8.35 worth of fertility 
is removed from the soil with the sale of every ton 
of wheat. With every ton of corn that is sold 
approximately $6.50 worth of fertility is removed 
from the soil. 

But in the case of dairymg — where butter is 
made on the farm and where all the by-products 
are fed to pigs and calves — we find that only 36 
cents' worth of fertility is removed in each ton of 
butter produced. The commercial value of a ton 
of wheat at 75 cents per bushel is approximately 
.$24.75 ^ t)Ut the commercial value of a ton of butter 




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THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 73 

at 25 cents per pound is $5,000. Hence, for each 
$100 worth of wheat that is sold from the soil 
$34.50 worth of fertility is removed from the 
farm, but for every $100 worth of butter that is 
sold, 7 cents' worth of fertility only is removed. 

This vast difference between wheat raising and 
dairying is explained in this way: A cow is fed a 
ration, say, of alfalfa and corn. Both the alfalfa 
hay and the corn have been raised on the farm. 
When consumed, the cow has assimilated approxi- 
mately 10^ per cent of the fertilizing elements. 
The remaining 89^ per cent go back to the soil in 
the shape of manure. Of the io>^ per cent of fer- 
tilizing" elements that are retained by the cow, about 
three-fourths go to make milk, and one-fourth to 
the maintenance of the body. 

In the case of butter made on the farm: The 
milk is separated; its analysis shows that 90 per 
cent of the fertilizing elements of the whole milk is 
found in the skim milk; hence, cream and butter 
remove but ten per cent of the whole amount. But 
the skim milk is returned to the farm and is fed 
to pigs and to calves, which utilize a part of these 
materials for building up the body ; the unused part 
passes on to fertilize the land. 

Dairying Is a Fat-Making Process — It may be 
said that dairying is a sort of fat-concentration 
process. That is to say, the resultant product, 
which is butter fat, is distilled from corn and alfalfa 
hay (and from all other materials used as food) 
through the agency of the dairy cow, the cream 
separator, and the churn, by means of which the 
distilling process is carried on. 

Butter fat, from a chemical standpoint, is a con- 
centrated form of heat. The heat comes from the 




► 




L 



174 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I75 

sun, in the first place. It is then taken up by grow- 
ing plants — such as enter into feeding rations — 
and made into palatable products for the cow ; made 
into products that satisfy hunger, and produce heat 
and fatty tissue in the body of the animal. Speak- 
ing strictly, this is one way by which man can sell 
concentrated heat for butter prices. Now, if the 
dairyman harvests hay and grain as feed and 
applies nothing whatever to the land to replace 
the fertility withdrawn, he will gradually reduce 
the fertility of the soil ; but the process of tearing 
down will be slow. In 20 years a wheat farm may 
be worn out by continual cropping ; but to wear out 
a dairy farm to an equal degree 9,720 years will 
need to pass. Wheat raising makes swift work in 
ruining lands ; but dairying preserves them. 

Dairying Remakes the Soil — A great source of 
profit in dairying lies in the fact that it remakes 
the soil. When you purchase feed for the cow 
that more milk may be produced, you add fertility 
to the land. Such feeds as linseed meal, cotton- 
seed meal and bran are exceptionally rich in fer- 
tilizing elements. It is not unusual to purchase 
elements of fertility more cheaply in the form of 
feeds than in the form of fertilizers. And the feed 
is paid for by the milk ; the milk pays also for the 
labor and allows, in every case, where attention and 
care are given, a fair margin of profit. In this way 
the fertility of the soil is restored at practically no 
cost. 

While soil building can be accomplished by using 
other classes of animals, it is, however, a fact that 
the dairy cow produces more real fertility than any 
other farm animal. A cow weighing from 1,200 
to 1,300 pounds, if fed to produce milk, during the 
year produces about 2,800 pounds of manure. 



176 PARM STOCK 

Nearly one-half of this is Hquid and should be 
saved, for it is exceedingly rich in fertilizing ele- 
ments. But right here comes a great loss to the 
average farm. The liquid manure gets away from 
the land which would not be the case were it guard- 
ed as its importance merits; for liquid manure is 
even more valuable than the solid manure; and if 
proper arrangements are made, it will take care of 
itself, and will not only fertilize the soil to which 
it should be passed, but it may be used for irri- 
gating the land at the same time. 

This can be done by means of a septic tank if 
the gutters in the stables are properly constructed 
so as to allow it to pass into the septic tank. When 
there, it ferments and later is discharged, through 
a system of tile drains, onto the land, where it be- 
comes distributed into all parts of the soil. The 
solid manure can now be hauled onto other fields 
with half the labor that otherwise would be re- 
quired, and all the fertilizing constituents in the 
manure can be completely recovered and restored 
to the soil. 

The loss of manure ought to be guarded against 
with zealous care; certainly as much as is given to 
guarding against the loss of any other farm prod- 
uct ; for it must be borne in mind that the manurial 
value of feeds like bran, after it has passed through 
the cow, is worth $10.50 per ton; of red clover, 
under the same conditions, approximately $7.30 
per ton; of linseed meal $16.77 P^^ ton; and of 
cottonseed meal $19.70 per ton. This bears out 
the statement, made elsewhere, that the fertilizing 
elements in manure are governed by the feeds that 
are fed to the cow. Hence, rich feeds make rich 
manure ; poor feeds, poor manure and little product. 

Dairying Is Behind Rich Lands — Dairying sets 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 77 

in motion the processes that make rich lands; that 
make plant food available. Your land may con- 
tain an abundance of plant food, but it may be un- 
available as food. Dairying will set the strings 
going; it will produce the food for plants in a 
soluble way and in abundance. Suppose you are 
served a cup of tea. You taste of it and find it 
is not sweet; but you are told that sugar has been 
added and you should stir the tea ; it now becomes 
sweet. The sugar, in this case, remained at the 
bottom of the cup and was not available until thor- 
oughly stirred and dissolved; until then there was 
little sweetening effect. 

So it is with soil fertility. Until it becomes 
soluble it is not food for plants. Manure has a 
disintegrating action on fertilizing compounds; it 
sets free the plant food. 

Dairying: a Balance in Fertility — An illustration 
may now be in place to show the important role 
that dairying plays as a soil builder in the realm 
of agriculture. Let us assume that a man pur- 
chases a farm of lOO acres for which he pays $ioo 
per acre, the whole amounting to $10,000. In this 
case, he invests his money in soil fertility, from 
which he desires to draw interest just as he would 
were he to deposit his money in a bank. 

We will now assume that wheat is grown on the 
farm on the entire 100 acres and for 20 years, the 
rate of production being 16 bushels per acre, which, 
according to statistics, is a high average for 20 
3^ears of continual cropping on good soil without 
the addition of chemical or stable manures. At 80 
cents per bushel, the entire production of wheat, at 
the end of 20 years, will amount to $25,000. 

But there is still another side : AVith each ton 
of wheat there goes $8.35 worth of fertility; with 



178 FARM STOCK 

the entire yield for the 20 years there goes $8,832^ 
in fertihty — leaving $1,168 only, out of the entire 
original investment. Instead of simply drawing 
interest on the capital invested, there has been 
drawn nearly the entire capital. On the face of the 
purchase 88 per cent of the original investment 
has been withdrawn by 20 years of continual 
cropping. 

We now will assume that instead of wheat alone, 
a dairy herd of 15 cows is maintained in connec- 
tion with wheat farming and that all the grain fed 
to the cows is purchased and that the manure is 
carefully preserved. It has been determined that a 
cow produces 14 tons of manure per year; but since 
there is always some waste, we will say that ten 
tons onl}^ are recovered, each ton of which is worth 
$2.95 per ton, as actual crop-producing experi- 
ments have shown to be the case. On this basis of 
valuation the fertility from the 15 cows will be 
worth, annually, $442.50, or $8,850 for a 20-year 
period. 

Besides the value of the fertility, there is to be 
added to the gross receipts of the farm $18,720, 
received from the sale of butter fat, and $3,600, the 
value of the skim milk; and these have paid for 
feed and labor, and some is left for profit. If the 
manure has been cared for and distributed prop- 
erly over the soil, the 15 cows in 20 years have 
replaced the $8,850 worth of soil fertility that was 
removed from the soil by the 20 crops of wheat. 
Hence, 15 cows are able to balance the soil fer- 
tility that is removed in growing 100 acres of 
wheat. 

Combined with dairying, wheat growing can be 
carried on indefinitely without the loss of fertility. 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 



179 



In other words, interest, and not capital, is with- 
drawn in this farming operation. Consequently, 
the full crop-producing power is maintained and 
an increase of $18 in plant food is added to the 
soil. If 20 cows are kept on this land, the crop 
producing power of the soil will be improved to 
the extent of $3,000. Therefore, the farm daily 




THE NEW WAY OF MILKING 

The milking- machine is gradually being improved, and 
before many years will be a fixed feature on every com- 
mercial dairy farm. 

4 

grows in value ; it adds quite a little to the capital 
invested in the plant. 



WHAT A DAIRYMAN SHOULD BE 



It is a trite but. true adage that in all sorts of 
farming "there is more in the man than there is 
in the land ;" and this applies in the most forcible 
manner to the dairyman. For he must not only 
be a skillful farmer, but a good judge of cattle; a 



l8o FARM STOCK 

careful, cautious man, and habitually regular in 
his habits; endowed with the virtues of patience 
and perseverance, and good, sound, common sense ; 
he must be studious, of a retentive memory, and 
able to judge wisely as to points of his busi- 
ness which may be in dispute; a good business 
man, and of a certain refined disposition and 
habits, and exceedingly neat and particular in his 
person. All these characteristics are indispensable 
'for success in his vocation, and for the following 
reasons : 

A Skilled Farmer — He must be a skilled farmer, 
because he must grow a large variety of crops, 
and make his soil exceedingly productive by the 
aid of the large quantity of manure he may make 
and gather ; and he must expend the crops he raises 
in the most economical and effective manner. He 
must understand well the character and uses of 
the different kinds of soil, so that he may select 
the best suited for his purpose; and he must know 
how to manage such land as he can best select or 
procure with the greatest effect and success. His 
profit depends upon the raising of large crops, and 
those of the most valuable kinds for feeding; and 
he must thoroughly understand the different modes 
of culture for grain, grass, root and fodder crops. 

A Good Judge of Cattle — He must be a good 
judge of cattle, because the cows are the tools of 
his trade, and without the best tools, no good work 
can be done. Moreover, there is such a large 
variety of breeds, and such a great variation in 
the quality of cows in use for dairy purposes, that 
without good judgment, and some accurate knowl- 
edge as a basis for the exercise of judgment in 
this respect, a dairyman would be at a loss how 
to make a proper selection, and would be very apt 
to make a serious and perhaps ruinous blunder at 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING l8l 

the outset. There are exceedingly great differ- 
ences in cows, and yet, as a rule, good cows are 
easily distinguished from poor and unprofitable 
ones, and the distinguishing marks and character- 
istics should be well known to the dairyman who 
expects to make a profit from them. So, too, he 
should be able to choose the most promising calves 
from which to replenish his stock, and also to 
choose a good sire for his calves, that he may 
steadily improve his herd in character and value. 
It is also indispensable for full success in the dairy 
that the dairyman should be able to judge of the 
character of the cows he is feeding, that he may 
discard those which are not profitable and keep 
only those which pay the best for keeping; and 
while there are certain accurate tests by which 
they can be ascertained, yet it is a valuable acqui- 
sition for a dairyman that he can tell at a glance 
which cows of his herd are the best and which he 
had better get rid of as soon as practicable. 

Broad Executive Ability Necessary — Careful- 
ness in every detail, cautious supervision over his 
stock, and in every little matter which calls for 
change or modification of method, are necessary 
qualifications in the dairy. A thousand small 
things are coming up at times which need fore- 
sight to guard against, and caution to avoid or 
evade. There are so many contingencies which 
are to be apprehended constantly, and so many 
accidents continually threaten to occur in this most 
intricate business, that unless one is naturally in- 
clined to be careful in every matter of manage- 
ment, the accidents which will surely follow will 
be sufficient to rob the dairyman of his profit. For 
instance, a gate may be left open, and the cows 
thus get into a luxuriant clover field, become 



l82 FARM STOCK 

bloated or otherwise injured, and some of them 
permanently ruined; or a cow may be left un- 
fastened in her stall and spend the night in roam- 
ing about the stable, molesting the other cows and 
perhaps injuring or even killing one or more of 
them. The feed box may be left open and the loose 
cow may be found dead in the morning from over- 
gorging herself with the feed. The water trough 
ma}^ be permitted to overflow on a cold day and 
an icy spot thereby formed upon which the cow 
may slip and fatally injure herself. The root cel- 
lar may be left open and the roots become frozen, 
and this stock of an indispensable feed be lost. 
The water trough may be leaking and the cows 
may go without a supply for the day, and half the 
day's milk be lost. And so on all through the 
daily routine of work there are so many chances of 
damage which are to be avoided only by the exer- 
cise of great care and constant caution. 

Regularity, too, in every detail must not be ne- 
glected. It is one of the rarest attributes of a man, 
to be constantly regular to hours and minutes, and 
to methods. And yet it is of the utmost impor- 
tance in the dairy. A cow is a machine for making 
milk and butter. This fact should never be lost 
sight of. And the cow must be fed and watered, 
and supplied with every attention; milked, turned 
out and turned in, protected from storm and 
weather, and in every way managed with perfect 
regularity. She is an accurate time keeper, and i£ 
her feed is late she frets, and fretting wastes milk, 
and the milk loses cream. 

A Dairyman Must Be Patient — Patience, perse- 
verance, and good common sense are requisite for 
success in the dairy. From the training of a calf 
to the last operation in dairying, patience is called 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 183 

for. The calves and cows should be well trained, 
and made docile and good natured. This can- 
not be secured unless the trainer is a patient 
man, able to control his feelings, and quell 
any rising anger stimulated by some accidental 
mischance. Impatience will make cows vicious, 
and their owners, at times, brutal. An accidental 
movement made by a cow, when the milker is care- 
less or incautious, may cause a pail of milk to be 
overset. An impatient man will kick or beat the 
cow for his fault; for, as we have seen, he should 
at every moment be on his guard for such acci- 
dents, and always ready to aA^oid them. We should 
remember that the man is the reasonable animal, 
able to exert self-control and to think, while the 
cow has only a natural instinct, and that alone 
makes her suspicious and always on the defensive 
against danger or attack. An unguarded, hasty 
approach may cause a cow to kick or attempt to do 
it instinctively, and to avoid all such dangers the 
dairjmian should, as we have already shown, be 
exceedingly cautious; but when they occur, the 
greatest patience is to be exercised. Cows should 
be pets, without fear, and with affection for their 
keepers; they are then most profitable to their 
owners ; and to bring them to this desirable condi- 
tion of docility the dairyman must exercise great 
and constant patience with them. 

Perseverance and common sense will enable one 
to surmount difficulties and to apply proper reme- 
dies for them at the right moment. Dairy work 
is full of risks, and as few persons are able to meet 
vi^ith every contingency until they have long expe- 
rience, it is necessary to persevere in spite of disap- 
pointments, using good common sense to make the 



1 84 



FARM STOCK 



for 



lessons learned from time to time available 

^"X:;rrS.«..n.-A dairyman must be stu- 
dious, and remember what he learns, applynrg 
oathered information to the better workmg of his 
da ry There is no other busmess connected with 
agriculture which is so intricate and involves so 




BUSINESS-LIKE DAIRYING 
T.e up-to-aate .airyrnan i.^a ..^.ess ™an In eve-y sense of 

many uncertainties, or which requires such con- 
"ant" applications of special scientific experiment 
and of careful personal investigation and Pmctice, 
and to meet successfully all these and other le 
quirements of his work, a dairyman must have . 
Lst a fair knowledge of dairy I't-ature, a„^^ 
know what other dairymen are doing, and what is 
done at the numerous experiment stations and by 
private investigations. At least he must have a 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 185 

good handbook or manual for reference in case of 
need, and must not be averse to learn something 
from every possible source of information. Be- 
sides, one man alone is weak and helpless, and 
knowing this, the dairymen have formed associa- 
tions for mutual help and information. It is very 
necessary, then, that every dairyman should make 
himself competent to discuss at these meetings such 
questions as may arise, so that from a multitude of 
counselors he may find safety from the difficul- 
ties which he meets constantly in his daily work. 

Must Be a Business Man — The dairyman must 
be a good business man, and make himself ac- 
quainted with the ordinary principles of business; 
able to keep accounts, and discipline himself as 
much as possible in the strict rules of regularity 
and promptness which conduce so much to suc- 
cess in any avocation. He is a manufacturer as 
well as a farmer; a purchaser and a seller in the 
markets, and should, therefore, keep himself ac- 
quainted with the markets, and should habituate 
himself to weigh and measure accurately every- 
thing he buys, everything he produces, and all that 
he sells, keeping strict account of all these matters. 
Otherwise he cannot tell where he loses and where 
he makes a profit ; he will not know an unprofitable 
animal from a well-paying one; he will not know 
which are the best and most profitable crops to 
grow for use, or the best foods to purchase; he 
will be groping in the dark all the time, and must 
necessarily suffer in pocket from his want of ac- 
curate knowledge of his business. 

Must Be a Gentleman — Lastly, he should culti- 
vate a certain refinement of manner and dispo- 
sition, a kind, considerate and thoughtful habit, 




186 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 8/ 

and, above all, practice the most thorough neat- 
ness and cleanHness in his person and manner. 
These requirements should be so constantly culti- 
vated that they will become a second nature, an 
instinct which is so thoroughly and completely a 
part of the man's character that they come into 
action spontaneously and without thought or effort 
on his part. For instance, the treatment of his 
cows should be instinctively kind and gentle, and 
the dairyman must so train himself to this habit, 
think it so often, and make it so much a con- 




MILKING-TIME 

scientious duty and a regular system of action, 
that he will never be tempted to act otherwise. Mr. 
Harris Lewis, President of the New York State 
Dairymen's Association, once remarked in reply 
to a question as to how cows should be treated, 
that every man should treat a cow as he would a 
lady; that is, with as much consideration for her 
comfort and happiness, and with the same gentle- 
ness and politeness. Politeness is simply the es- 
sence of thoughtful kindness, and this every dairy- 
man should accord to his cows as a matter of com- 
mon habit. Cows so used will well repay the favor, 
and in turn, become kind and gentle, and never 



1 88 FARM STOCK 

exasperate or annoy their owners with the com- 
mon and troublesome vices of cows. Perfect 
cleanliness should be made a constant study, until 
it is so thoroughly a part of the daily life that a 
dairyman would no sooner milk a cow or handle 
milk or butter, or go about the work in the dairy 
in an unclean condition or manner, than he would 
put a dirty hand to his food, or go to a social gath- 
ering all unwashed and with clothes reeking with 
filth. This scrupulous cleanliness is indispensable 
in the dairy, and it should be so made a part of the 
nature and disposition of the dairyman by con- 
stant self -training, that it will naturally apply it- 
self to every part of the dairy work — the care of 
the stables, the management of the cows, frequent 
carding and brushing them, the washing of the 
udder when necessary, but always the wiping of it 
with a wet sponge or towel, the cleansing of the 
utensils, the careful protection of the milk from 
everything which would make it impure or offen- 
sive, the situation and care of the milk house, the 
manner of milking, churning and preparing the 
butter, and every other of the various details of the 
work. In every way the most constant and perfect 
cleanliness being necessary, this habit must be so 
thorough and strong that no effort will be needed 
to accommodate one's self to it, and, therefore, it 
must be made a part of himself by every thorough 
and successful dairyman. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
The Business of Beef Making 

The making of beef is one of the large farm 
industries and calls for much capital, great skill 
in breeding and feeding, and constant attention to 
details. Beef raising has had its ups and downs ; at 
some periods profitable, at others a losing venture. 
Even the cattle kings in the older days had many 
losses as well as good profits, at times. The de- 
mand for beef is always equal to and sometimes in 
excess of the production; and this is more likely to 
be true in the future than it has been in the past. 

The control of prices in the sale of beef has 
brought about much hardship to the producer. 
Whether co-operative slaughter houses and sale 
yards will be things of the future only time can 
tell. However^ there is certainly now too large a 
difference between the cost of the live animal and 
the cost of the product to the consumer. Either the 
consumer pays too much or the producer gets too 
little. The simple fact that a number of large 
slaughtering houses have been built up, bringing 
their owners immense profits and incomes, is 
enough to indicate that the margin between produc- 
tion and consumption is too large. 

One of the first essentials in the business of beef 
making is the right sort of stock. The manufac- 
turing animal should be a good beef -making 
machine. If a^ou have primitive live stock, you 
certainly cannot expect very large profits. Deli- 
cate machines produce high-grade work. Finely 

189 




19(» 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING IQI 

bred and carefully attended animals are profitable; 
and just in proportion as the owner is skilled and 
trained in the art of right breeding and right feed- 
ing, will he succeed in the production of beef ani- 
mals that pay. A scrub beef cow is a failure and 
has been so for a long time. She is an old-fash- 
ioned beef-making machine; she is out of date; she 
is too slow in doing her work ; and when that work 
is done its quality is often so poor as to be unsatis- 
factory to both producer and consumer. 

Then you must know about the market require- 
ments. Too many men insist on growing beef to 
suit their own ideas and pay no attention to what 
the market requires ; hence, when they sell their 
stock they must take what they can get. Not 
only should you study the best market from the 
standpoint of your locality, but study the best mar- 
ket from the standpoint of the class of beef you 
raise. This refers to breed, to size of finished ani- 
mals, and to their general quality. 

LEARN TO JUDGE CATTLE 

There are several reasons why the feeder should 
be able to judge cattle. Every steer is not a good 
feeder and a poor feeder in a herd cuts down the 
profits. The good judge knows which steers will 
utilize their food to the best advantage, and his 
herd is composed of cattle which will put on flesh 
rapidly. Some experiments have shown that pure- 
bred cattle can be fattened on less than the poorer 
grades, while, on the other hand, many scrubs are 
found that will make larger gains than thorough- 
breds, on the same amount of feed. 

Reasoning from these facts, the feeder who 
knows just what degree of purity will make the 




192 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I93 

best feeders, and who can pick from the cattle of 
low breeding those that will make the best gains, 
has a great advantage over the man who cannot 
distinguish between good and bad feeders. 

The success of the feeder depends as much upon 
the kind of cattle bought, and the price paid for 
them, as upon the way in which they are fed. It 
is evident that, if a stockman buys inferior cattle 
and pays a big price for them, he will not 
make a very great profit on them. The buyer 
should know when, where and how to buy, and, 
more important, what to buy. The time of year 
at which the herd is to be marketed influences the 
kind of cattle demanded. 

Christinas Beef — An example of this is the de- 
mand for beef of fancy quality at Christmas. If 
a feeder intends to market at that time, he should 
buy feeders of fancy quality. To be able to do 
this he must know what degree of quality is re- 
quired, and what kind of cattle will finish in a 
fanc}^ condition. During the feeding period, the 
feeder should be able to determine the exact con- 
dition of his herd. If his animals are not making 
the proper gains, the feeder should at once detect 
it, and change the ration. The expert judge knows 
just when to add more roughage, or when the feed 
does not contain the proper amount of carbona- 
ceous or nitrogenous food. 

Another very important thing that the good 
judge knows, is that he is able to detect disease 
and unhealthiness in cattle. The man who buys 
diseased cattle has a poor chance of making any 
profit. Unhealthy cattle do not make profitable 
gains, and are as objectionable in a herd as the poor 
feeder. The purchase of one diseased animal may 
cause the infection of the entire herd. If disease 



194 FARM STOCK 

comes into a herd during the feeding period the 
feeder should be able to detect it, and separate those 
affected from the rest of the herd. 

Study the Requirements — A feeder learns to be 
a good judge by studying the requirements of a 
good steer. He must know what the form of 
a steer should be, low-set, deep, broad and compact, 
rather than long-legged, gaunt, narrow and loosely 
put together. The broad, compact form indicates 
strong constitution, and the low-set animal is 
usually a good feeder. The top and underline 
should be nearly parallel and the flank and twist 
low. Cattle having prominent hips, tail, heads and 
shoulders should be avoided, as smoothness of out- 
line is essential. 

The quality depends very much upon the breed- 
ing of the animal, and the market class into which 
the steer shall go depends largely upon the quality. 
Good quality is indicated in a smooth, refined head, 
fine bones, and thin skin, covered with silky hair. 
The skin should be loose and mellow. Strong con- 
stitution is necessary if the animal is to make good 
gains. The rapidity of gains depends largely upon 
the amount of food that a steer can digest and as- 
similate, and a strong constitution is required to 
handle a large amount of food. Strong constitu- 
tion is indicated by a wide, deep chest, long and 
well-sprung ribs, compactness of form and fineness 
of bone. If a breeder knows when an animal pos- 
sesses these perfections, he can choose a herd that 
will be good breeders and money-makers. 

BABY BEEF 

In the old days the idea was to raise cattle until 
they reached the age of four or five years and then 
to fatten them. The new idea is to grow beef, 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I95 

Starting with the young animals, that are gradually 
brought to the block at as early an age as possible. 
It requires a great deal of feed, much time and 
effort; and money is locked up for a long period if 
cattle are not sent to the market under five years 
of age. If they can be brought to nearly the same 
weight in from 15 or 18 to 24 months, all the 
feed for maintenance is saved, but half of the labor 
is expended, and the money is used but half the 
period. These are important considerations in 
growing beef or live stock of any kind. 

The raising of baby beef is somewhat of a diffi- 
cult and complicated specialty that has grown up 
within the last few years. Of course, in this busi- 
ness there is no chance for scrub animals. Only 
highly bred individuals that possess good quality, 
good health and the right type need be entered into 
the race of baby beef making. Now baby beef is 
coming to be the rule. It is the sensible kind of 
beef to raise. It is obvious that the sooner an ani- 
mal can be brought to a market condition, the 
greater is the profit. The quicker stock can be 
grown and fatted for the market, the greater the 
profit and the more satisfaction to the producer. 
Many experiments have been conducted in the beef- 
raising section which all point to the greatest suc- 
cess in the production of baby beef. But this style 
of farming requires just a little more skill than the 
old style. Better feeds must be used, they must be 
fresh and palatable and they must be presented in a 
way that the animals will eat the largest possible 
quantities. 

SHELTER 

Several experiments have been made to determine 
if shelter is necessary in the production of beef. 




196 



ri?; 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I97 

The results indicate that an open shed is preferable 
to either a closed barn or an open barnyard. In 
stall feeding no better results were obtained than 
where fed out in the open with exposure to all kinds 
of weather. The best results are obtained by al- 
lowing the run of the yard with shelter provided 
so that during the cold rains and snows the ani- 
mals, may get in out of undesirable weather. A 
small amount of exercise is good for the health, 
and not enough to cause any loss in feed. 

FINISHING STEERS IN THE SPRING 

After being fed all winter on dry foods, which, 
to a certain extent, become monotonous to the fat- 
tening animal, steers will frequently eat but little 
else when turned suddenly upon fresh pasture. 
Unless they are kept off the grass for all but brief 
periods during the first weeks, there will be a check- 
ing of growth due to the fact that the succulent 
grass has disordered the digestion of the animals. 
At the same time they will consume more of the 
fresh, palatable grass and will not eat enough of 
strong nitrogenous or fat producing foods. 

Do Not Give Pasture Exclusively — This calls for 
careful regulation of the diet of the growing steer 
when first put upon the green pasture. They should 
be allowed enough palatable mixed feed to take 
the edge from their appetites, so they will not feed 
heavily upon the grass when turned out. It has 
been found that a good feed of mixed grain, early 
in the morning, will serve this purpose best. If 
the steers are then turned upon the pasture, they 
will not overfeed on the green forage. At this 
time the concentrated meals and ground grains are 
not as good as properly mixed whole grains, for 



198 FARM STOCK 

the reason that if these are fed in addition to the 
already extremely laxative fresh grass, the animals 
-v^ill be checked in growth. 

A balanced ration cannot be said to be furnished 
by early spring grass alone. This early growth is 
large succulent grass containing practically no ni- 
trogen or fat-producing matter. For this reason 
considerable corn with some dry alfalfa or clover 
hay or some of the small grains should form a part 
of the morning ration. The well-mixed feed com- 
posed of grain, such as oats, barley, rye and corn, 
is, at this time, to be preferred above one formed 
chiefly of corn. 

FATTENING STEERS IN SUMMER 

It is a significant fact that many extensive feed- 
ers, especially along the borders of what is known 
as the bluegrass region, have turned from blue- 
grass to the clovers, or a mixture of the same with 
timothy or broom grass. They believe that the 
net returns in beef per acre are thereby enhanced 
and the crop rotations of the farm better provided 
for. 

The permanent bluegrass pasture has many ad- 
vantages of its own; but in many localities in the 
latitude of central Illinois and northward, large 
yields of such pasture are precluded by conditions 
of soil or climate. In this event, it is but the part 
of wisdom to replace it by that grass or legume 
crop which will contribute most largely to the an- 
nual net profit of the farm and to the advantage 
of the live stock thereon. Unproductive pasture 
land is certainly one of the largest leaks in the 
farming and animal husbandry systems of the cen- 
tral west at this time. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I99 

One common mistake in the handling of pasture 
lands is that of supposing mere grazing to be the 
means of keeping up the fertihty of the land. If 
the cattle have their feeding, bedding and watering 
places apart from their pastures, the fertility they 
take from the land will be deposited about these 
places. This results in a removal of plant food al- 
most as marked as if hauled off in the form of 
hay. The mechanical application of manure to the 
pasture in that case becomes of importance equal 
to that of the fields devoted to several crops. 

As to the grain rations advisable for finishing 
steers on grass, we may note, in the first place, that 
the amount of grain fed should be governed largely 
by the relative cost of grain and grass. That is, 
when grass is cheap and corn dear, it is good prac- 
tice to utilize the former to the greatest possible 
extent consistent with the production of a satis- 
factory marketable product. If the quickest finish 
is wanted, the appetite of the steers is the best guide 
to follow. They will commonly eat 17 or 18 pounds 
of corn per 1,000 pounds live weight, or about the 
same amount as in winter. 

If fed a full grain ration, about one-half as much 
pasture area will be required as on grass alone. 
Further, the question whether such a supplement 
as linseed-oil meal or cottonseed meal can be added 
profitably to the corn fed, must be answered con- 
ditionally with reference to the character of the 
pasture crop. With any of the clovers or other 
legumes the need of a nitrogenous supplement is 
generally doubtful, while with bluegrass, or still 
more markedly, with timothy, orchard grass or 
native prairie grasses, such feeds are of distinct 
value. 



200 



FARM STOCK 



BEEF CATTLE IN AUTUMN 



The critical time with beef cattle is the period 
when grass fails and they are not yet taken into 
winter quarters. The reference is, of course, to 
cattle that are to be finished some time during the 
winter. To meet the emergency of a dry summer, 
the pasture provided should be in excess of the 




A HOME-MADE DIPPING TANK 

This dipping tank is always ready for use. An occasional 
dipping wards off disease, and plays havoc with lice and 
mange. 



needs of the stock. Such pasture, though in ex- 
cess, will not be wasted. What is not eaten in the 
fall will so protect the plants that early growth 
will follow in the spring, and this will probably 
more than offset any loss from uneaten grass. But 
even the most careful forethought will not pre- 
vent a shortage at such a time in a very dry sea- 
son. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 201 

Supplementary Food — When pastures are short, 
supplementary food of some kind must be fed. 
If no increase was made during this period of 
shortage, all the food eaten would be lost in the 
sense that no direct profit would be made from it. 
Wise forethought, then, will provide such food. 
The form in which it is most commonly furnished 
is that of corn in the stalk, and in some areas sor- 
ghum. It is sometimes furnished in northern 
areas in the form of rape. \Mien thus furnished, 
the cattle are introduced gradually to the rape to 
avoid the danger of bloating. They are allowed 
access to an old grass pasture at the same time to 
counteract the tendency to scouring. Where gne 
has only a small bunch of cattle to carry, a few 
acres of rape will go a long way toward putting 
the cattle in high condition, providing the rape is 
well grown. 

Hozv Corn and Sorghum Are Fed — Of course, 
the feeding of corn may begin before the season 
has arrived for harvesting. But to harvest by 
hand, and feed from day to day, is laborious work. 
It is much easier when the corn can be harvested 
with the corn harvester and can then be drawn and 
spread over the pastures. AVhere the number of 
cattle is large there should be two pastures. The 
corn for one day's feed is thrown down on a fresh 
place each day on the sod, but only every other day 
in each field or inclosure. The cattle that are being 
led up to fattening take the choice from the food, 
and other store cattle eat up what is left. Swine, 
of course, glean, also with the latter. Sorghum is 
cut and shocked like corn or is piled in heaps and 
is carried from these to the pastures or paddocks. 

Xo additional grain is called for unless the cattle 
are to be made ready for the early market; that 



202 FARM STOCK 

is, before the end of the year. If more grain is 
called for it may be given most cheaply in the form 
of corn. But, of course, other grains will answer 
fed in the ground form. More commonly, it is 
not added to the food until the animals go into 
winter quarters. If farmers would only provide 
for it, the cheapest food that could be used would 
be corn silage. The idea is common that corn 
silage is only good for milk production. When the 
silage is made from corn that is well stocked with 
ears, it is even better relatively for beef produc- 
tion than for milk production when it is the chief 
factor in the ration, as it furnishes a ration much 
more nearly balanced for making beef than for 
making milk. Such food would meet the needs of 
cattle on short pastures better, probably, than any 
other. Think also of the economy of feeding the 
silage, because of the almost complete consumption 
of the stalk. Should the silage not be ready for a 
week or two at the first, corn in the stalk could be 
fed until it is ready. The feeding of the silage 
could begin the day after the silo had been filled. 

It is a matter of much importance that cattle 
thus in process of fattening should be protected 
from cold storms. Especially is this important at 
night. During such periods they ought to be 
protected. Such exposure will greatly retard in- 
crease. No detail should be overlooked that will 
tend to promote their comfort. They can then be 
taken into winter quarters without any hindrance 
to progress from the change. 

SWINE FEEDING AFTER CATTLE 

The plan of allowing swine to feed after cattle 
that are being finished on corn has become so com- 
mon in the corn-belt states that to fatten cattle 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 2O3 

successfully in any other way than in conjunction 
with swine feeding after them is looked upon as an 
impossible thing. That is to say, it is looked upon 
as impossible to make the financial end of the work 
come out right without making swine to glean 
among the droppings. 

The plan of thus fattening cattle and swine in 
conjunction grew out of the exigencies of necessity. 
Corn was so cheap relatively in former years that 
it was possible to feed it ever so freely to animals 
that were being fattened. When corn was lo to 
20 cents a bushel, it did not matter much, though 
it was fed very freely to the cattle. If feeding a 
large amount fattened them quickly, that was the 
great consideration. It was of more consequence to 
rush the cattle in the fattening process than to try 
to save corn. Because of this, it became quite com- 
mon to feed to a cattle beast of 1,200 to 1,500 
pounds weight not less than 25 to 28 pounds of 
shelled corn per day. The animal so fed would 
probably gain 2^ pounds per day for the short 
feeding period of 100 days, and so much of the 
corn would be undigested that a pig gleaning after 
it would get enough, to produce, say, one pound of 
increase per day. 

Putting the corn at 20 cents per bushel, the beef 
made at 4 cents per pound and the pork at the same 
price, the increase in meat would be worth 14 cents 
and the cost in corn would be but 10 cents. There 
would thus be a gain of 4 cents on the meat made 
in one day, also a further gain in the enhanced value 
of the meat, as shown by the live weight when the 
feeding began. This does not take into account the 
fodder fed or the cost of feeding, nor the value of 
the manure, which would offset both by such a sys- 
tem of feeding. 




THE NEW IDEA IS TO GROW BEEF 



204 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 205 

Influence of Changed Food Values — The influ- 
ence of changed food values is going to affect 
mightily such a S3^stem of feeding. Take corn at 
40 cents per bushel. Suppose the gains in beef and 
pork are the same. Present prices will scarcely war- 
rant putting the average value of the finished steer 
at more than 4 cents per pound in the feed lot, and 
the same is approximately true of pork. The cost 
of the increase in beef and pork in this case would 
be 20 cents, while the A^alue of the same in the feed 
lot would be but 14 cents as before. Therefore, the 
loss would be 6 cents. To offset this would be 
the increased value of the meat each day that com- 
posed their original weight. 

It is questionable if this would offset the loss re- 
ferred to. Now, suppose corn went up to 50 cents, 
the prices of meat remaining the same, the chance 
for making a profit would be further reduced. 

Wliat Must Happen — It is very evident, there- 
fore, that if finishing beef by this system is to con- 
tinue, there must be modification somewhere. It 
may come in diiferent ways. It may come first 
through the enhanced value of meat, or second, 
through modification in the system of feeding. It 
is evident that the present system is not attended 
with large profits as things are. The prices paid 
for meat must advance or the value of grain fed 
must decline. The margins at present are too nar- 
row. Wdien they become too narrow feeders must 
shut down, or at least curtail their operations, and 
this ultimately reacts upon those who supply the 
cattle. Now, food values are not likely to decline 
seriously. The trend of the level of food values is 
to go up as countries grow older, hence, if meat 
is to be grown in sufficient supply, it must become 



206 FARM STOCK 

more expensive; that is, it must become higher in 
the sense that the grower shaU get more for it. 

Another Plan of Feeding — It may be that an- 
other plan of feeding will be introduced. By this 
plan the corn and other grain will be ground. It 
will be mixed with ensilage and fed, or with other 
cut food. Instead of feeding each animal 28 pounds 
of grain a day they will be fattened on less than 14 
pounds a day and the swine will be eliminated from 
the feeding. The gains will be somewhat less than 
two pounds a day on the average and the feeding 
period will extend over five months rather than 
three months. This system calls for more labor 
than the other, but the time is unquestionably com- 
ing when it will pay better. 

It may be, however, that this time is not quite 
here. No one in Europe or Canada would think of 
feeding a cattle beast 28 pounds of grain a day. 
They would not think of doing so, because they 
could not afford it. 

FEEDING INFERIOR CORN TO CATTLE 

The feeding value of inferior grades of corn Is 
usually underestimated by the farmer who finds a 
lot of it on his hands. Consequently, he often 
sells it at a sacrifice to some neighboring stockman, 
whose experience has taught him that such corn is 
better than it looks. This is true of light-weight 
corn, which has matured too early by reason of 
drought, and it is true of soft, frost-bitten ears. 
The former is low in starch and oil, having been 
halted in its growth before the storing of these sub- 
stances was completed ; but the protein is there in 
nearly normal amounts so that the proportion of 
protein to other nutrients is greater than in sound 
corn. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 20/ 

Good Gains on Frosted Corn — Soft, frost-bitten 
corn, excepting its high percentage of water, com 
pares favorably in composition with sound corn 
and its feeding value depends chiefly upon the 
amount of moisture it contains. In 1896 and 1902, 
when large areas of corn were damaged by early 
frosts, professional cattle feeders were able to buy 
at their own prices, below ten cents a bushel 
in many cases, all the corn they could use, and in 
most cases it was found that the steers fed out 
with as good gains as in normal years. It is not 
to be inferred that the highest finish can be put 
on choice or fancy feeders with soft, watery corn, 
but it is a fact that medium and good grades of 
cattle can be made about as thick and ripe as the 
market demands of these grades on a ration of 
soft and .even moldy corn, such as the crop of 1896. 
Combined with hay at its present low price, it 
should be the means of producing beef at very low 
cost. Let unsound corn, therefore, be reckoned at 
its true value. 

The class and grade of cattle best adapted to the 
circumstances is the most important matter to be 
decided by the farmer who proposes to convert his 
damaged crop into beef. Those who have to buy 
feeders will find that the prevailing cheap hay, 
plentiful grass and high-priced corn of this sea- 
son generally favor the handling of yearlings 
rather than calves or two or three-year-olds, be- 
cause they have the greatest capacity for utilizing 
a coarse ration to good advantage. The farmer 
is fortunate who can buy in his own neighborhood 
native yearlings suitable for feeding, but most 
buyers will have to look to one of the markets. 

Quality of Feeders Important — Quality of feed- 
ers is the essential point in cattle of yearling age 




208 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 2O9 

whether they be natives or western range cattle. 
They should be started on feed while grazing on 
fall pasture, stubble or stalk fields, together with 
the best available roughage. They cannot be fat- 
tened most profitably under eight to ten months, 
and an effort to crowd them more rapidly will 
give disappointing results. Let ten or 12 pounds 
of shelled corn per steer be the upper limit during 
the winter. Regulate the ration so as to keep the 
cattle growing fast and fattening somewhat. A 
600 or 700-pound steer started in October should 
weigh 300 pounds more before the opening of the 
next grazing season. They may then be full fed 
on grass for the July market or grazed over sum- 
mer with little or no grain and fattened in the 
fall. This proposition, of course, requires pasture 
and a supply of good roughage like clover hay. 
It would be advisable only where a part of the corn 
crop matures sufficiently so that it can be kept over 
winter. 

Buying Feeders in Fall — Supposing that a large 
amount of badly damaged corn must be disposed 
of in a short time, or that pasture or leguminous 
hay is lacking, the most suitable cattle to select 
are usually either heavy, fleshy feeders or some 
kind of thin butcher stock. AMienever medium 
or good grade, 1,100 to 1,250-pound, three-year-old 
feeders can be bought at feeder prices, they are the 
most profitable cattle that can be fattened; but 
they are difficult to find in the country, and can 
seldom be bought at conservative rates at the large 
markets. They must be thrifty, and not previously 
burnt out with corn. They can be fattened in 90 
to 120 days, according to their condition and age. 
They may be started on shock or snapped corn, 
and should be on full feed after about three weeks. 



2IO FARM STOCK 

Various kinds of butcher stock — cows, heifers, 
bulls and low-grade steers — will also be handled in 
large numbers this fall by experienced cattle feed- 
ers who wish to make a quick turn. Such cattle 
are especially suited to the man who is located 
near a large market, or who can pick up mixed lots 
of cattle cheaply in his own neighborhood. Little 
capital is required and such cattle can be handled 
with less care than any other class. For instance, 
a field of corn that is scarcely worth husking or 
shocking may be harvested by turning the cattle 
into it, gradually, of course, until they are on full 
feed. High prices of milch cows render the 
butcher stock proposition unusually safe at present, 
in view of the good returns that can be secured 
from cows or heifers that prove to be in calf. 
Some skill and experience in trading are neces- 
sary in order to buy cattle of this class worth the 
money. 

Best Methods of Feeding — As to methods of 
feeding immature corn, it may be said that, on gen- 
eral principles, the simplest methods should be 
used; that is, the greatest profit is usually made 
by feeding it as shock fodder, snapped or husked 
ear corn. The silo, also, is undoubtedly one of 
the most effective means of extracting the full 
value out of such a crop as we are considering. 
Cutting damaged corn for fodder has an advantage 
over snapping and husking in that it keeps better 
in that condition. The degree of softness and 
the percentage of water contained must be con- 
sidered in determining the way in which the crop 
shall be fed. 

It is now settled that grinding corn does not 
pay, ordinarily, even though corn is high and 
though no hogs follow the cattle. Shock corn is 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 211 

best fed by stringing it out on the ground in a dry 
yard, keeping the hogs out until the cattle are 
through eating. Feed half a shock a day to a car- 
load of steers at first, increasing up to the amount 
desired at the rate of one or two stalks a day per 
steer. Nitrogenous concentrates, like cottonseed 
meal, linseed-oil meal, gluten meal and gluten feed, 
may be profitably fed, considering the price of 
corn. They are most effectively used when legu- 
minous roughages, clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay, 
etc., cannot be obtained, as they take the place of 
such roughages to some extent ; and wherever corn- 
stalks, timothy hay or straw must be depended 
upon, the by-products named can usually be fed 
with profit. 

FATTENING CATTLE IN LATE FALL 

Never in the history of all live stock feeding 
has the necessity been greater for the exercise of a 
prudent caution on the part of those who feed live 
stock than at the present time. The prices of 
coarse grains have run up to such a pitch that the 
greatest of care and judgment will be required to 
make any considerable profit from feeding cattle 
the coming winter. It would seem, therefore, to 
be the part of wisdom with those who have cattle 
in good condition to push them forward for the 
early rather than for the late market. 

Where the facilities are present, there are two 
or three ways of doing this. If the owner has a 
good field of well-grown rape he can turn it to 
excellent purpose in fattening cattle in the autumn. 
He must introduce the animals to that kind of pas- 
ture with much caution. When once really intro- 
duced onto a rape pasture, they may be left on it, 



212 FARM STOCK 

but should have a chance to graze on a pasture not 
too distant in which the old grass and the new are 
abundant. Such a condition is frequently found 
in bluegrass pastures in the autumn. On such pas- 
tures the cattle should gain rapidly, even without 
grain. In the absence of a grass pasture, access 
daily to clover or alfalfa hay will have a good 
effect upon the digestion. Rape, soft and imma- 
ture, will not be nearly so valuable for laying on 



-#;«% 



'i^^^Iiii^^M^^^^^'. 




CATTLE FEEDING ON A WESTERN FARM 

They have both quantity and quality in the West. In 
time tliese big herds will be broken up; better care will be 
given and a higher quality of product will result. 

fat as rape that is well matured. When the rape 
begins to fail, it may be supplemented by shock 
corn, or in the absence of corn, by grain. 

Feeding Shock Corn — This is one of the com- 
monest and best ways of finishing the cattle where 
such food is to be had. There is no better way of 
feeding it than by strewing it on the pastures. 
The cattle will consume the ears and also much of 
the stalk. If two pastures can be had and the cat- 
tle are fed in these on alternate days, and if other 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 2I3 

Store cattle can follow, then the waste in the corn 
will be much reduced. It will be further reduced, 
if not entirely obviated, if the pigs can follow to 
glean amid the grain that shells. But in northerly- 
areas it may be necessary to finish the cattle by 
feeding shock corn and hay, preferably clover, in 
the paddocks or sheds, and by adding some corn 
in the ear or shelled in addition. 

Finishing on Meal — In areas where corn is not 
abundant, the cattle can be finished on meal, which 
at first supplements the pastures and later the fod- 
ders fed in the sheds. Such meal may be obtained 
from any of the coarse grains, as oats and speltz, 
or oats and barley, or it may be obtained from any 
one or two of these and ground millet. While the 
cattle are yet on rape or other good pasture, the 
feeding of the meal may begin, giving only two 
to three pounds a day at first, and increasing the 
quantity according to the needs of the cattle. Corn 
fodder or hay, or both, may, of course, be fed 
when the pastures begin to fail. Good corn fod- 
der, quite equal to hay, may be grown away north 
and several tons may be obtained per acre. 

Protecting from Storms — When cattle are thus 
finished in the autumn, they should be most care- 
fully protected from storms, especially when ac- 
companied by cold. Exposure to one storm will 
prove a hindrance to gain fully equal to the ordi- 
nary gain of several days. Ontario feeders aim to 
protect their cattle from exposure to the early 
frosts even, by giving them the cover of a shed 
at night. They give them a light feed of hay in 
the early morning before turning them out to 
graze. The practice is excellent, as it prevents 
them from filling the stomach with grass while 
still covered with rime. 



214 FARM STOCK 

A High Finish Essential — When cattle are thus 
finished in the autumn, a high finish should be 
sought; such cattle reach the market when it is 
flooded with common cattle, which affects the price. 
But the proportion of highly finished animals at 
such a time is not large; hence, if they have the 
finish, they will usually be in demand at fair prices. 
They should be marketed, as a rule, before poultry 
begins to arrive at the holiday season, otherwise 
they should be carried over until after the opening 
of the year. 

Good cattle in fair flesh, say in August or Sep- 
tember, may be finished as outlined above with 
more profit than by carrying them on into or 
through the winter. This cannot be done with 
lean cattle, as the time is too short to bring them 
to a high finish. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
The Care and Management of Cattle 

The cattle-man, regardless of his line, recognizes 
that the most intimate association must exist be- 
tween himself and his stock. It is positively out of 
the question to make a success of dairy cattle or 
beef cattle Avhen the tender is not in close sympa- 
thy with and earnestly attentive to the animals 
under his charge. 

The "animal knoweth his keeper." He who is 
abusive, rough and thoughtless is not a success. 
When you see a flock of sheep, a drove of hogs or 
a herd of cattle at the very heels of their master, 
licking his hands and clothes, you may know that 
there is a chord of sympathy and good will exist- 
ing between the man and his animals. No slip- 
shod attention and care will do. 

You must study the needs of your herd from 
day to day. You must feed and care for them ac- 
cording to each particular period in the lives of your 
animals ; and you must be ever ready to make 
some sacrifice in some direction, if you would se- 
cure the greatest success in the raising- of the stock, 
in the production of milk, or in the fattening of the 
steer. 

Just as there is a constant changing demand for 
food from early calf hood to adult age, so must 
there be constant changes of management during 
the period of growth to maturity. 

No general rule will apply for all classes of 
cattle. The scheme or plan of managing a beef 
herd will not be applicable to a dairy herd ; and each 

215 



2l6 FARM STOCK 

breed calls for close attention, in some single di- 
rection, to some particular point ; consequently, each 
cattle raiser must thoroughly understand his. herd, 
be in close touch with the market to which his milk 
or beef products go and give close attention to the 
feed of his section, the community and individual 
farm. 

He must be conversant also with the drawbacks 



za.\ms 



■nn^, 




JUST WAITING FOR SUPPER 

This simple contrivance is much esteemed where many 
calves are fed and raised. Each gets its own ration, with- 
out fuss, confusion or fight. 

or strong points of his own farm in its relation to 
the particular breed of cattle or to style of product 
he produces. 

REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK 

A great many people think a good calf cannot 
be raised on skim milk. For many years our calves 
were such long-haired, stunted, little things we were 
ashamed of them. But we kept on trying until we 
had something to be proud of. After much reading 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 21/ 

and experimenting, we have mastered the subject 
and now raise fine, thrifty calves. After letting 
the calf suck for three days we put it in a pen by 
itself and let it get hungry. Then, with three pints 
of its mother's milk, we teach it to drink; this may 
necessitate two or three trials. A total of only 
four quarts and a pint is given at first in three 
feeds. If the calf does not seem to be very strong, 
we give four feeds, the last at bedtime. It always 
gets new milk warm from the cow until it has a 
good start and is drinking well. This practice con- 
tinues for two weeks. 

When to Begin — At two weeks we begin to feed 
skim milk. A teaspoonful of flaxseed meal is 
mixed with half a teacup ful of warm water and 
placed on the back of the stove a few minutes. This 
is mixed with one quart skim milk and one quart 
new milk, and fed three times a day, always at a 
temperature equal to blood heat. Now we have 
the calf taking two quarts three times a day. The 
new milk must always be sweet. We never over- 
feed ; if the calf does not drink its milk up clean at 
once we take away what is left and give less next 
time until it has an appetite for three quarts three 
times a day; never any more. Overfeeding on 
skim milk always stunts a calf. Each calf is kept 
in a pen by itself. Since no two calves are alike, we 
are very particular to give his own ration according 
to his age. When each is a month old we begin 
to feed a little hay and a few oats or a little meal, 
thus keeping it growing thriftily. This method in- 
volves some trouble at times, but it pays. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY CALF 

If strong- and healthy, the calf should be taken 
awav from the dam when two or three davs old. 




218 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 2ig 

The calf should be fed whole milk for about two 
weeks; then add about one-fourth skim milk, and 
keep increasing it for a week or ten days, until 
the whole milk is entirely displaced by skim milk 
altogether. Frequently, with excellent results, a 
little flaxseed jelly can be used in the skim milk.. 
Add this when beginning to feed skim milk; and 
even if the calf is a week old no bad results will 
follow. 

To make this jelly, soak whole flaxseed in hot 
water. This is far superior for young calves to 
any calf meals used as a substitute for milk. If 
you cannot get the whole flaxseed, ground oil-cake 
meal, as found on the market, is a very good sub- 
stitute. 

At two weeks old, place a little Avhole corn and 
oats in a box so the calves can get at it — they soon 
learn to eat and relish it — as well as hay. With 
this system, calves do well at three weeks old on 
flaxseed jell3^ grain and hay, with about one pint 
skim milk added to each feed, morning and even- 
ing, so as to give the jelly a milk flavor. 

Do not allow calves to get fat, but keep them in 
a good, thrifty, growing condition. Get them to 
eat a minimum amount of concentrates. Continue 
this system with the calf until within three or four 
months of cowhood, then feed concentrates liber- 
ally so as to develop the milk-secreting organs for 
service after the birth of the calf. 

FEEDING MILK IN GOOD CONDITION 

Many of the ills of calves arise from giving 
them milk in poor condition. At the creameries 
the vats are sometimes allowed to get in a very 
unsanitary state. They are not emptied and 



220 FARM STOCK 

scalded out with sufficient frequency, and some- 
times washings from the utensils are dumped into 
the vats. In some instances the milk is drawn 
back and kept for a day or two before it can all 
be fed. It has time to become acid and otherwise 
deteriorate, and when fed in such a condition does 
not make a very good food for calves. 

Separator Milk is Best — The best skim milk 
that can be obtained for calves is that which has 
been obtained from new milk run through the 
separator soon after it has been obtained from the 
cow. It is then fresh. It is of proper temperature, 
or nearly so, and is in its constituents almost as 
good as new milk for promoting growth. If the 
pails in which it is kept are scalded, then the dan- 
ger from bacterial contamination is obviated. 

The temperature at which milk is fed is a mat- 
ter of much importance. Cold milk lowers the 
temperature of the stomach, and through it, the 
temperature of the body. Though no further 
harm be done, the lowering of the temperature of 
the body means more food, as, before any gain 
can result, the temperature must become normal, 
and this means that it is made so at the expense 
of food. 

Milk, from what is known as the setting process, 
is usually, if not, indeed, always, below the normal 
temperature. If fed, therefore, at the normal tem- 
perature, it must be heated. 

Sometimes it is heated by adding hot water. 
This dilutes it too much. Again, it is heated over 
a fire. This changes its properties somewhat, and 
is troublesome. Heat is added by pouring in hot 
gruel. This is as good as far as it goes, but does 
not go far enough usually. Hence, simple as the 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 221 

problem of heating milk seems, it is not so simple 
after all. 

AMOUNT OF MILK FOR CALVES 

The amount of milk for calves varies greatly 
with the capacity of the calf to take it. The 
amount recommended to be fed also varies great- 
ly, some authorities recommending twice as much 
as others. With reference to this question it will 
be correct to say that during the earlier weeks of 
the life of the calf no adjuncts will be found su- 
perior or equal to milk. It is also true at the same 
time that as soon as calves can utilize other food to 
good advantage, it will be found cheaper than milk. 
It follows, therefore, that the calves should be 
given all the milk that they can digest properly 
until they can make good use of substitutes that 
take the place of milk. 

But care should be taken not to overfeed milk, 
good as it is. This can be easily done. The indi- 
cations of overfeeding soon show themselves in 
deranged digestion, and such derangement is com- 
monly indicated by scouring. The moment that 
such an indication appears the amount of 4nilk fed 
should be reduced. 

It is very evident from what has been said that 
it will not be possible to name the amounts of milk 
to feed that will be suitable for calves of all ages, 
but it may be possible to state average amounts. It 
would seem safe to say that during the first week 
of the life of a calf it will safely take from six to 
eight pounds of milk, the latter quantity being fed 
at the close of the week. Strong, vigorous calves 
may take as much as ten pounds, but ordinarily the 
smaller quantity is the safer one. Then add one 



222 FARM STOCK 

pound of milk every week with the advance in the 
age of the calf until it is, say, ten weeks old. 

CARE OF CALVES AFTER WEANING 

Subsequent to the weaning period, calves are 
frequently allowed to lose in flesh, thus, in a 
measure, losing the benefit that would otherwise 
result from careful feeding during the milk period. 
The food and care are not exactly the same with 
calves weaned in autumn as with those weaned in 
the spring. 

Calves weaned in spring usually go on grass 
pasture as soon as it is ready. Such food is very 
suitable for them, and when it is abundant, no 
other food may be necessary. Usually, however, 
it is advantageous to keep up the supplement of 
grain, though it may be in lessened quantity. 

The same is true of calves that are to be finished 
quite young, as when grown for baby beef, calves 
of the beef types or classes intended for breeding 
should be given a less amount, and those intended 
for milk production may fare well enough without 
any. No kind of meal supplement, probably, is 
superior, to the following for summer feeding: 
Ground corn, three parts; ground oats, three, and 
wheat bran, one. If only one grain is fed, let it be 
oats. 

WINTERING YOUNG CATTLE SUCCESS- 
FULLY 

Four things are necessary to insure fair growth 
and good condition in young cattle during the win- 
ter. These are all within the power and reach of 
evervone to obtain if he so desires. First, shelter. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 223 

Since our timber has been taken away, live stock 
cannot be left out in open lots as in former years 
without suffering serious loss and discomfort. 
Where the owner has not sufficient barn room and 
is not able to build it, good shelter can be had by 
making straw sheds for the cattle with but trifling 
expense. Or, in the absence of straw, warm sheds 
may be made by using fodder for sides and roof 
and this can be fed in late spring when the danger 
of cold rain or snow is past. At any rate, sheds 
can and should be provided for them so that they 
may have protection in bad weather. 

Supply Plenty of Water — Then they should have 
plenty of pure, clean water. Many farmers enter- 
tain the idea that stock cattle will not drink much 
in cold weather. This is a mistake. They are 
eating dry fodder, hay or straw, as the case may 
be, and they must have plenty of water to assist 
nature in dissolving these dry feeds. And they 
should have it at will. By this means they will 
not be so likely to fill themselves full of cold water, 
or sufficiently so to chill their entire system and 
make what should be a source of comfort to them 
a source of discomfort. They should also be fed 
plenty of forage, either fodder or hay, clover or 
mixed preferred, and straw about all they will 
consume, with a small ration of grain once or twice 
a day. 

What Grain to Give — This grain may be fed in 
the shape of corn in the shock if any is grown on 
the farm small enough that they can readily masti- 
cate it; if not, larger corn may be husked and 
chopped into small pieces with hatchet or corn knife 
so that the yearling steer can readily take hold of 
it and eat it. Some farmers shell corn, others pre- 
fer grinding corn, cob and all, and feeding it that 




ol 

o 



924 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 225 

way. This latter method requires more careful 
equipment and greater care in feeding- than either 
of the other two methods. For calves, however, 
we prefer shelling corn and mixing one part oats 
to two parts corn. The young animal will do bet- 
ter and make better growth with part ration of 
oats than where corn alone is fed. There is more 
protein in oats and the growing animal needs more 
of that. However, if clover or alfalfa hay is used^ 
the protein in that will even up the corn and fod- 
der and make better rations. 

Helping the Manure Pile — \Mien this method 
of disposing of the forage crops of the farms is 
practiced, all rough feeds, such as fodder, hay and 
straw, is worked up into manure and put back upon 
the land from whence it came. And we believe 
that 3^oung cattle, sheep or colts, carried through 
the winter on rough feeds mainly, do not pay large 
profits for feeding, yet the incidental profits coming 
from the business in increased fertility and conse- 
quently larger yields of other crops, makes the 
feeding of forage-consuming animals on the farms 
almost a necessity rather than a choice. And in 
these days of close competition and small profits in 
business, farmers are compelled to practice such 
methods as will give them maximum results at 
minimum cost of producing them. 

SUPPLEMENTING CATTLE FEEDS 

Early in the history of cattle feeding in America, 
the problem was not as serious as it is today. Com- 
petition was at a minimum. Feeds were plentiful 
and cheap, so it came about that each farmer could 
raise a few steers each year, using the grains and 
forage produced on his own land. This he usually 
did at a profit. 



226 FARM STOCK 

The modern cattleman has a more difficult prob- 
lem. Corn and other feeds are high and the packers 
have systematized the business so that they pay 
the least possible price for fat cattle. The matter 
of supply and demand does not cut as much figure 
as it did formerly, consequently the man who de- 
sires to remain in the business of raising and feed- 
ing cattle must use every means of getting his 
stuff on the market at the lowest cost. 

Good Feeders Wanted — In order to do this, he 
must first secure feeders of good beef formation 
and get the kind that will mature early. Long 
two-year-olds are probably the most satisfactory, 
as they put on fat more readily than older cattle 
and at less cost. When these animals are secured, 
put them in a dry feed lot, so arranged that the 
drainage is good, and also so placed that the cat- 
tle will be protected from the storms and winds. 
A cheap open shed will keep off rain and snow. 
Have good feed troughs. 

Corn is the most fattening feed in the region 
where the bulk of the beef cattle are produced 
and finished. It will always remain the standby, 
because it is a great fat producer and is one of 
the cheapest feeds we have. Oats and barley may 
/be fed in limited quantities, but seldom is either 
used alone. Ground in combination with corn, 
xesults are sats factory. 

Concentrates Profitable to Use — Big feeders 
^nowadays find that concentrated feeds are advis- 
■ able. None of them suggest large quantities, but 
• a small addition to the regular ration not only gives 
the animal a good appetite, keeping his coat smooth 
and his skin mellow and his digestive organs in 
.'good condition, but materially aids in increasing 
•.the live weight. Linseed meal is one of the chief 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 22/ 

standbys and cottonseed meal is exceedingly satis- 
factory. Both these feeds are to be used with 
caution, and more especially where hogs follow 
cattle. 

It behooves the feeder, therefore, to study the 
problem of feeds very carefully, secure prices of 
concentrated feeds, note the value of feeds produced 
on the farm, and make his combinations accord- 
ingly. Locality, distance from market, etc., have 
much to do with the problem, and all must be taken 
into consideration. 



CHAPTER XV. 
The Diseases of Cattle 

The most successful directions in which the 
treatment of cattle diseases have gone are of the 
nature of prevention, of eradication of cause, and 
of improved sanitary conditions. It does not pay 
very well to attempt simply to cure disease, for 
the cause remains just as it did before. Another 
thing that has been learned is this fact. Our most 
troublesome, our chief contagious and our greatest 
loss-making diseases are due to germs. Take 
tuberculosis. A few years ago we considered that 
an hereditary disease only. Now we know it is not 
hereditary, but solely a germ disease, easily ac- 
quired by taking into the system, through air or 
uncooked food, living germs that find comfortable 
quarters in the body. 

Take hog cholera — the most fatal and trouble- 
some disease among swine raisers. It is a germ 
disease. It does not pay to attempt to cure a sick 
hog if the germ still remains on the premises, for 
the cause is still present, ready to rise up at any 
moment to attack oncoming herds. 

The idea back of treating disease among our 
lower animals is to combat the cause, eliminate the 
starting troubles so as to secure thorough sanitary 
conditions, healthful environments and quarters 
free of germ or insect. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Tuberculosis — Without question, this disease is 
the most far reaching among cattle. The annual 

228 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 229 

loss is tremendous, not only due to diseased ani- 
mals being- either killed or dying of the disease, but 
the loss in production, the shortage in work, 
whether it is beef or milk, is somewhat tremen- 
dous. Not only is this phase to be considered, but 
the number of people, especially babies and chil- 
dren, who by means of milk and butter from tuber- 



^^**- ^*^^- 




EWIa^^ 



A CATTLE BATH TUB 

The cage here shown is used for dipping- the cattle for 
treatment of mange. The dipping tank is now generally 
used throughout the West. 

cular cows, take this disease annuall}^ is alarm- 
ing. The effort of the experiment stations, the 
department of agriculture, boards of health and a 
score of other workers to lessen and wipe out 
tuberculosis is going along right lines and in the 
end will bring about great good. 

Tuberculosis of cattle is similar to that of peo- 
ple. It destroys the tissues of the lungs, is found 



230 



FARM STOCK 



in the intestines and may locate itself in various 
parts of the body. The early signs of tuberculosis 
are unthriftiness, poor appetite, dry cough, papery 
skin, and coarse, rough hair. As the disease ad- 
vances the flesh gradually wastes away, the cough 
increases and often a discharge is seen from the 
nose or mouth. By listening to the lungs, if far 
advanced, considerable difference will be noted 
from the normal action. A physical examination 
may be verified by the tuberculin test, a preparation 
that is injected into the animal just under the skin 
and readily taken into the circulation. If the ani- 
mal is tubercular, the fact is indicated by the rise 
in the temperature eight or ten hours after the in- 
jection. This rise continues for several hours, 
reaching 105 or 106 or even 107°, and then grad- 
ually declines. 

Treating the Disease — There is little to be said 
about the treatment of animals affected with tuber- 
culosis. If they are common animals, perhaps the 
best thing is to slaughter them. In many cities, 
inspection of suspected herds is done under the 
direction of the state, and some compensation given 
by the state for the slaughtered animals. 

Animals of considerable worth, especially dairy 
animals, may be handled as follows : Isolate the 
tubercular animals from the rest of the herd by 
giving them quarters of their own, off by them- 
selves, where they may have plenty of fresh air, 
an abundance of ventilation in the stables, and 
nutritious food. As soon as the offspring are born, 
immediately remove each one from its mother, 
giving it none of its mother's milk at all. It has 
been proved conclusively that this new born off- 
spring does not possess tuberculosis. If now given 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 23I 

milk free from tuberculosis germs, it will develop 
into a strong animal, free of the disease. 

The milk from the tubercular herd can be made 
into butter, provided it has been thoroughly steril- 
ized so as to destroy all of the germs. By this 
practice a costly herd of cattle can be maintained 
for the time being, until the offspring are born, at 
a small cost due to the isolation. 

Fighting Tuberculosis in the Stable — A con- 
tinued battle needs to be fought against tuberculo- 
sis in every stable w^here cattle are, in any great 
quantity, housed or constantly stabled. This will 
apply especially to dairy cattle. A wise practice is 
to test the dairy cows in your herd at the earliest 
possible moment by means of the tuberculin test. 
You can do this yourself ; but it is better to get a 
veterinarian who is fully acquainted with all of the 
details of the work. If any of your cows respond, it 
is to your interest to dispose of them. They can be 
sent to the slaughtering houses and there they will 
be passed upon by the government officials. If not 
far gone, they will pass the test and you will get 
the usual beef prices. If in bad health, they will 
be condemned and, of course, you would not want 
them to be used or kept for any reason. 

The next step is to thoroughly disinfect all of 
the cattle quarters. Any of the disinfecting fluids, 
and lime, will do for this purpose. A monthly 
spraying of the quarters is to be advised and the 
whitewashing of all of the premises at least twice 
each year. And then every six or ten months, 
test the cows for tuberculosis, or until you are 
certain that it has been eradicated. From now on, 
once every year or i8 months will be sufficient and 
by so doing you can be reasonably sure that your 
herd is free of this dreaded disease. 



232 FARM STOCK 

It is also advisable to have all purchased cattle 
that go into the dairy herd isolated and tested be- 
fore admitted. In this way you will avoid danger. 

Anthrax — This is an infectious disease due to 
the anthrax bacillus. While most common in cat- 
tle and sheep, it is known also to occur in horses, 
mules and goats. The disease may be transmitted 
from animals to man. It is first noticed as being 
in the skin, lungs or intestines ; breathing is labored 
and the intestinal discharges may be covered with 
mucus and blood; swellings appear as carbuncles, 
which, when opened, show a yellowish mass stained 
with blood. Pools of stagnant water are frequent 
sources if contaminated with the bacillus. If such 
a disease has been present, make a most thorough 
disinfection by the use of chloride of lime or other 
disinfecting substances. Vaccination of susceptible 
animals for the purpose of preventing the disease 
has proved very successful and is now generally 
employed. 

Abortion — By this is meant the premature expul- 
sion of the offspring. It may be due to an acci- 
dent, a noncontagious trouble ; or it may be due 
to an infectious germ that is contagious and unless 
checked will pass through the entire herd. Symp- 
toms prior to abortion are not generally observ- 
able and no successful treatment has yet been dis- 
covered for handling the disease. It is necessary, 
however, to use the greatest caution in isolating 
aborting animals from the stables and barns, to 
thoroughly disinfect the quarters in which they 
have been placed, and then to frequently use disin- 
fecting liquids every week or ten days so that the 
disease will not spread to other members of the 
herd. 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 



233 



Texas Fever — The greatest bane of soutnern cat- 
tle raising has been Texas fever. It has been only 
recently that this ailment has been clearly under- 
stood. Now we know it is due to the ticks that 
seek to live on southern cattle. One of the ob- 
servations early made was that young cattle never 
were inconvenienced nor troubled with ticks, but 



' m 


1 
4 



A CASE OF TEXAS FEVER 

A familiar attitude assumed -when afflicted with Texas fever, 
caused by the cattle tick. 



that old cattle, if they had never had ticks on them, 
would invariably die when the ticks came. Cattle 
that had carried ticks from young calf hood went 
into old age bearing this parasite for years without 
any disease manifestation at all. These differences 
were not clearly understood until recently, when 
the following facts were brought out : 



234 



FARM STOCK 



First, that young calves are usually immune. 
Cattle ticks do not bother them and by the con- 
tinued carrying of ticks they carried their immu- 
nity throughout life. 

Second, that if the young calf was not rendered 
immune by having ticks on it at an early age, that 
same calf, w^hen reaching the age of 15 or 18 
months, would succumb to the disease if infested, 
because it had not been rendered immune while 
young. 

Third, inoculation for the purpose of securing 
immunity has been practiced successfully. The 
most rational treatment of Texas fever is in the 
order of prevention. That is, to keep the ticks off 
the farm. It is not good farming to have each ani- 
mal carrying thousands of big ticks, constantly 
filled with blood, even though they do not threaten 
the life of the animal. It should be remembered 
that these ticks consume great quantities of nutri- 
ents that have been given the animal in form of 
good food. The flesh of tick-infested cattle is 
not good, and they never reach the highest develop- 
ment; and it is an easy matter to keep ticks off the 
farm. By keeping cattle off the field for a year, 
the ticks will be entirely destroyed. The following 
year, turn the cows in a field that has been cleared 
of ticks, being sure that no ticks are on the cattle; 
and then, by keeping all cattle off of the infested 
parts of the farm for another year, complete eradi- 
cation will be effected. 

Any sort of grease or lard rubbed by means of 
a brush onto the cow along her abdomen and legs 
and neck, or such parts of her body as touch the 
ground when she lies down, will reach all of the 
ticks and in a short time they will drop off dead. 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 



235 



Foot and Mouili Disease — This is a common dis- 
ease throughout Europe and threatened our coun- 
try quite seriously a few years ago, especially in 
New England. The very quick and effective work 
of the states in conjunction with the United States 
Department of Agriculture quickly wiped out the 
disease. 




FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 

In this case the dreaded disease has affected the udder. 
When affected, the only method of treatment is immediate 
slaughter. 



The disease itself is highly infectious, the /irus 
being found in eruptions in the mouth and on the 
feet ; in the milk and other products of the barn- 
yard. The death rate is low. The chief symptoms 
are rise of temperature, loss of appetite, followed 
by blisters and sores in the mouth, on the tongue 
and lips. Even the udder may show such spots. 
Many cases are known where the hoofs were com- 
pletely destroyed. 



236 FARM STOCK 

Vaccination has been practiced, but not very suc- 
cessfully. The best method has been to destroy 
all of the diseased animals and then to thoroughly 
disinfect all quarters where such animals have been. 

Milk Fever — This disease is peculiar to the cow 
at the time of calving. It may be due to bad sani- 
tation, poorly ventilated stables, mature age, etc. 
The disease ordinarily appears from one to two 
days after calving. Some claim that the disease 
is due to excessive milk secretion, but the cause is 
not clearly understood by the scientists. 

Milk sickness is usually associated with the 
heavy milking cows. The common treatment of 
milk sickness now, is to inject ten grams of iodide 
of potash into the udder as soon as possible after 
the symptoms of milk fever are noticed. 

One of the most common treatments is to simply 
pump air into the udder. I know many people who 
have resorted to the common bicycle pump for this 
purpose and in a few hours the afflicted animals 
were up, moving about, and as full of life as ever. 

Cornstalk Disease — The cause of this disease is 
not known. The symptoms are digestive disturb- 
ances, accompanied by delirium and unconscious- 
ness. The most reasonable view to take is that it 
is some germ disease associated with molds in the 
food. If once attacked with the disease, the afflicted 
animals succumb very rapidly. The greatest 
caution is here suggested in the use of moldy food. 
Cornstalk disease has, perhaps, been more prevalent 
throughout the western states than elsewhere in 
the country. 

Bloating — This trouble is caused by the forma- 
tion of gas in the first stomach. It is closely asso- 
ciated with indigestion. In fact, it is a form of 
indigestion. Green foods like clover or alfalfa, vmtil 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 2.:i;j 

the animal has become thoroughly used to them, 
will ordinarily cause bloat. Even dry alfalfa when 
cured into hay, frequentl}^ causes bloat and death. 
Where alfalfa is mixed with other grass or where 
the pasture animals have access to dry hay, corn 
stover and sorghum, there seems to be little dan- 
ger from its use as pasture. 

In treating, large doses of soda dissolved in 
water ma}^ be administered, using with it melted 
lard or other harmless oil. When the pressure 
upon the inside of the stomach has become so great 
that the animal cannot walk, it is necessary to 
resort to pamiching. This operation consists in 
making an opening in the stomach directly through 
the body wall and may be accomplished by means 
of a thrust with a knife. The incision is described 
as equall}^ distant from the last rib and the hip bone 
and the set process of the vertebral column upon 
the left side of the animal. 



CHAPTER XVL 
Sheep 

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a 
source of profit to mankind, and its keeping and 
rearing an important industry. Abel, the second 
son of Adam, chose sheep herding as his employ- 
ment; and although his brother chose to till the 
soil, the tending of herds and flocks became the 
favorite occupation of the human race in its early 
periods. In those days people did not till the soil 
more than they were obliged to. Of course it was 
very easy to tend the flocks, because there were 
few people and much land and it is very likely 
that the sheep was the earliest animal domesti- 
cated. 

So dependent is this animal on man that without 
him he could not exist. Having always yielded 
to his master's will, gone where that master bade 
him and been protected as much as possible against 
all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy. 
His senses have lost their acuteness. 

As civilization progressed stage by stage, and the 
manufacture of garments of wool displaced those 
of skin, careful breeding began to improve the 
fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in 
type. Later on, as people became more settled in 
their occupations, cities were built and demands 
for mutton increased; and that demand has in- 
creased, until, at the present day, it is greater than 
the supply. It has been stated that the markets 
of the city of New York alone require more than 
one million sheep each year. 



SHEEP 



239 



While the sheep industry has always been one 
of prominence in the United States, it has always 
been less than its worth has merited. There is 
a place on every farm for some sheep. Wool is 
in constant demand and usually commands good 
prices. Mutton may be consumed at home, re- 
placing some of the pork, or it may be sent away 
to the markets of the world. Sheep will graze on 
pastures that other farm animals reject; and 
wherever the sheep's feet tread for any length of 
time, the land improves and wealth abounds. For 
this reason, this beast has been termed the "animal 
with the golden hoof." 




A PAIR OF COTSWOLDS 

The ewe and ram shown here are both prize-winning 
individuals. They have to their credit silver medals and 
championship ribbons. 




240 



CHAPTER XVII. 
Breeds of Sheep 

Merino — The Merino sheep was evolved in 
Spain, and has been reared there for centuries. 
From Spain they have been exported into the vari- 
ous countries of Europe, United States, AustraHa, 
etc. The first importation into the United States 
was made in 1802 by Col. Davis Humphreys of 
Derby, Connecticut. Under the influence of Ameri- 
can and French breeders, the old Spanish Merino 
has been improved so that the forms now known in 
the United States are the American Merino, the 
Delaine Merino, and the French Merino or Ram- 
bouillet. The Delaine Merino has been evolved 
from the American Merino and differs from it in 
the longer fleece and improved mutton form. 

The American Merino is one of the smallest 
breeds in the United States. The ewes at maturity 
weigh from 90 to 125 pounds and the bucks, when 
in good condition, from 140 to 175 pounds. The 
skin of the Merino is characterized by heavy folds, 
especially about the neck; wool is fine and very 
dense. The fleece will weigh 10 to 15 pounds 
more in the rams. It is one of the hardiest sheep 
in the United States and adapts itself to various 
conditions of climate and food products better than 
any other breed. It can be herded in flocks of 
thousands where the mutton breeds cannot be suc- 
cessfully herded in flocks of over 200. 

They are the sheep par excellence for grazing. 
They do not become fully mature until the age of 
three or four years, and their feeding qualities are 

241 



242 FARM STOCK 

inferior to those of the mutton breeds. The meat 
is lacking in tenderness and flavor, and contains 
a larg-e proportion of bone to meat. Within recent 
years many of the eastern flocks of Merinos have 
been crossed with the mutton breeds, for the pur- 
pose of producing an aU-around wool and mutton 
sheep. 

Delaine Merino — The Delaine Merino has been 
produced from the American Merino. It has a 
larger carcass, a better mutton form, is nearly free 
from folds and wrinkles and carries a longer fleece, 
though not quite as fine nor as well glued together 
on the surface as the American Merino. 

The chief sub-types of the Delaine Merino are 
the Standard, the National and the Improved De- 
laine. Closely related to these in their leading 
characteristics are the Black Top Spanish Merino, 
the Improved Black Top Merino and the Dickin- 
son. All the Delaine Merinos have horns, and 
more or less wrinkles or folds about the neck and 
breast. The Black Top Merinos, likewise, have 
horns in the rams, but do not have wrinkles, and 
the fleece is more of a black. The Dickinson or 
Polled Merinos have neither horns nor wrinkles. 
They are a little larger in size and the fleece is 
longer than the Delaines. 

Ewes of the Delaine type, when mature, will 
weigh from 100 to 150 pounds, the rams from 140 
to 190 pounds. They are practically equal to the 
American Merinos in hardiness and grazing 
powers, but are superior to them in early maturing 
qualities, in the quality of the mutton produced and 
in feeding qualities. The Delaines are used ex- 
tensively for crossing on western range sheen, 
where the fleece has become light and open. The 
fleece in ewes will weigh from nine to 15 pounds, 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 



243 



and in the bucks, 12 to 18 pounds. The minimum 
length of the fleece is three inches. 

Rambouillet— In 1786 the French government 
imported from Spain :i,^^ selected Spanish Me- 
rinos. These sheep were kept chiefly at Ram- 
bouillet, where they have been carefully bred by 
rigid selection and liberal feeding, and greatly 




RAMBOUILLET RAM 
A sturdy representative of the old French Merino class. 

improved in mutton form, quality of meat and 
weight, without the introduction of any outside 
blood; both the weight of the carcass and the 
weight of the fleece have been increased from 100 
to 150 per cent over the old Spanish Merino. 
These sheep were introduced into the United States 
in 1840, but did not become specially prominent 
until during the last 20 years. Full grown rams 



244 



FARM STOCK 



of this breed will weigh up to 225 pounds and the 
ewes up to 175 pounds. 

These sheep are much taller, stronger limbed 
and more rangy than the American sheep, have a 
better mutton form, are less wrinkled and the wool 
is longer, though not quite so dense or fine, and 




SOUTHDOWN EWE 

A saddle of Southdown has long been considered one of 
the choicest of all morsels. Some of the best in the world 
are raised in this country. 



freer from yolk, than the American Merino. They 
are also taller and heavier than the Delaines, but 
have not quite so good a mutton form, though 
very similar in other respects. 

The Rambouillets have the same hardiness and 
feeding qualities as the American Merinos and, 
while the quality of the meat is excellent, it is 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 



245 



not quite equal to that of the mutton breeds. These 
sheep are especially valuable for crossing upon 
range stock for the purpose of securing a larger 
carcass and heavy fleece of wool. They are at 
present largely used alternately with Cotswold 
rams on western range flocks. 





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A SHROPSHIRE AT ATTENTION 

Of the medium wool breeds, the Shropshire leads all others 
in numbers. Nearly 25,000 were registered last year. 

Southdown — The Southdown originated in 
England, and was imported into this country at 
the beginning- of the nineteenth century. It is a 
smooth, round-bodied, symmetrical sheep, with a 
brown, gray or mouse-colored face and feet. The 
fleece is rather dry, coarse and light. They are horn- 
less and while the smallest of the medium breeds, a 



L 



246 



FARM STOCK 



medium fat, two-year-old wether will weigh from 
130 to 140 pounds. They are especially well 
adapted to hilly lands with a dry soil, short, dry 
herbage. They stand in the first rank among 
early maturing breeds, and the meat is of the best 
quality. They are vigorous and especially desirable 




A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRES 

Hampshires are black-faced, hornless and black-legged. 
This sheep is gaining in popularity, because of its heavy 
fleece, good grazing quality and large size. 



for crossing where mutton is chiefly sought. They 
have been used to a greater extent in the produc- 
tion of the various other pure, dark-faced breeds, 
than any other of the Down breeds. They are 
inferior in wool production, giving an unwashed 
fleece that will average from five to seven pounds 
in weight. 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 24/ 

Shropshire — The Shropshire is the most popu- 
lar mutton breed produced in the United States. 
It is well proportioned, symmetrical, and a little 
heavier than the Southdown. The ewes will weigh 
up to 175 pounds, and the rams up to 225 pounds. 
It is of English origin and was evolved out of the 
Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester breeds. It 
was first imported into the United States in 1855. 
They are especially adapted to general farm con- 
ditions where the land is well drained and where 
pasturage is good. The ewes are very prolific, 
producing on the average about 40 per cent of twin 
lambs. 

The unwashed fleece will average nine to ten 
pounds in weight in ewes, and 12 to 15 pounds in 
the rams. The face is grayish black and the legs 
still darker; in recent years there has been a tend- 
ency toward somewhat lighter faces. 

As compared with the Southdowns, the Shrop- 
shires have a longer and heavier body and a heavier 
fleece. The head is more completely covered with 
wool, and the wool is longer, though not so fine; 
it is what is known on the market as medium De- 
laine or half combing wool. 

It is one of the best general-purpose sheep for 
farm flocks, since it produces a high quality of 
mutton, a good grade of wool, which brings nearly 
top prices, and a large percentage of lambs. 

Hampshire — The Hampshire is a hornless, 
black-faced, black-legged sheep. Like the South- 
down and Shropshire, it originated in England and 
is the outcome of a cross of the Improved South- 
down upon the Wiltshire and Berkshire Knot sheep. 
It is much larger than the Southdown, more pro- 
lific, produces a heavier fleece, and has better 
grazing qualities. It is larger than the Shropshire 



248 



FARM STOCK 



and the lambs grow more rapidly to maturity. 
They are especially adapted to an intense system 
of farming, and for crossing where early, quick- 
maturing, large-sized lambs are desired. 

The unwashed fleece will weigh from seven to 
ten pounds in the ewes and a little heavier in the 



-J^J^^W^^^^^W^rT-^^ 




A HORNED-DORSET BUCK 

For the production of hothouse lambs no breed is 
more popular than the Dorset. The breed is gaining in favor 
every day. 



bucks. The wool corresponds to that of the Shrop- 
shire, but is perhaps a little coarser. They are a 
stylish, handsome sheep of the mutton form, and 
are quite widely distributed throughout the United 
States. 

Suffolk — This is a medium wool, hornless, mut- 
ton breed, with a long, black face, and a general 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 249 

absence of wool on the head and between the ears, 
which constitutes the principal difference in appear- 
ance between the Suft'olk and Hampshire breeds. 
The body is rather long, the legs jet black. The 
Suffolks occupy an intermediate place between the 
Shropshire and the Hampshire. They have not 
been extensively bred in the United States. 

Oxford — The Oxford Downs originated in 
England as a result of crossing Cots wold rams 
upon Hampshire Down ewes and the selection and 
mating of the progeny. These sheep since 1857 
have been known as Oxfordshire Downs or Oxford 
sheep. They are widely distributed over the United 
States. They are the largest and heaviest of the 
Down breeds. When in good flesh, the rams 
should weigh 250 to 275 pounds, and the ewes 
from 200 to 225 pounds. The wool is rather 
coarser than any other of the medium Wools and 
the fleece is heavier, weighing from ten to 12 ■ 
pounds unwashed. 

The Oxfords resemble the Hampshires in gen- 
eral form, but are a larger breed and the face is 
not so dark. It is usually an even dark gray or 
brown, with or without a gray spot on the tip of 
the nose. They are best adapted for lands furnish- 
ing good pasture, and do not succeed as well under 
range conditions or on rugged, broken pastures as 
either the Shropshire or Southdowns. 

Dorset — The Dorsets are one of the oldest Eng- 
lish breeds of sheep. Both sexes are horned. The 
face is white with a tendency toward a slight Ro- 
man nose. They are considerably larger than the 
Southdowns. The average weight for a mature 
ram is about 215 pounds and for mature ewes, 165 
pounds. The wool is short and will average six to 
eight pounds unwashed to the fleece. 



250 FARM STOCK 

The Dorset is a solidly built sheep, and especially 
esteemed for its prolificacy. When properly man- 
aged, two lambing seasons a year are possible 
with this breed. This makes the Dorset especially 
popular for the production of winter lambs. When 
bred in May, they produce lambs for the Christ- 





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A CHAMPION LEICESTER EWE 

If you do not like sheep for wool only, then why don't yon 
try mutton? 



mas market, and will breed again soon after drop- 
ping their lambs. They frequently produce twins 
and often triplets. The ewes are frequently bred 
to Southdown or Hampshire rams to give the mar- 
ket lamb a black face, which is generally pre- 
ferred by the butchers. The Dorset is generally 
regarded as the most prolific of the sheep breeds. 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 25 1 

The ewes are exceptionally good milkers. They are 
a hardy sheep ; good rustlers ; have early maturing 
qualities, and the mutton is superior. They stand 
unrivaled among the sheep breeds for the produc- 
tion of winter lambs; i. e., unweaned lambs which 
can be marketed during the holidays and winter 
months. 

Cheviot — The Cheviot is a mountain breed of 
sheep, hardy and does well on scant pasture. They 
are native to the Cheviot hills of England. These 
sheep are distributed in nearly all the states east 
of the Mississippi river. They are a medium- 
sized sheep, the rams weighing 175 to 200 pounds, 
and the ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. The wool is 
rather coarse, the fleece weighs eight to ten pounds. 
They are especially sought where hardihood is im- 
portant. The breed is pure white, including a 
white face and white legs. Occasionally there are 
small black spots on the head and ears. The end 
of the nose is dark. They do not bear close con- 
finement as well as some of the other breeds. The 
mutton, though of good quality, is not equal to 
that of the Southdown. 

Leicester — The Leicester is one of the long- 
wool native English breeds which, though popular 
in England, have never made much headway in 
America. There are two types of Leicesters, the 
Bakewell and the Border Leicester. They both 
have the same general style, but the Border Leices- 
ter is a little the larger and not quite as compact 
as the Bakewell. They are a white-faced, square- 
bodied, hornless breed. The mature bucks weigh 
225 to 250 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. 

The unwashed fleece will weigh from nine to 1 1 
pounds. The wool is of good length and fiber, 



252 



FARM STOCK 



and hangs in spirals at the outer surface, cover- 
ing the whole carcass except the head and legs. 
They are especially suited to thickly settled condi- 
tions where there is an abundance of succulent 
vegetation. They are easy keepers, mature early 
and make excellent use of the food given them. 
They are only fairly well adapted for rough graz- 










»1Q'. 



Slllti 



A FINE LINCOLN FLOCK 

The Lincoln belongs to the large mutton class of sheep. This 
breed is growing more and more popular in this country. 



ing purposes. In prolificacy they are not equal to 
some of the other breeds. 

Lincoln — This is probably the most popular of 
the long-wool breeds of sheep. It originated in 
Lincolnshire, England, and has been distributed 
all over the world. They were first imported into 
the United States in 1836. They are the heaviest 
of all the breeds of sheep raised in this country, 
the mature rams in good flesh weighing 275 to 300 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 253 

pounds, and the ewes 225 to 250 pounds. The 
unwashed fleece should weigh from 12 to 14 
pounds on the average, and the staple should not 
be less than eight inches in length. It hangs in 
large and wavy spirals. This breed has a white 
face and a conspicuous tuft on the forehead. Both 
sexes are hornless. 

They are especially well adapted to an intensive 
system of agriculture, are good grazers, dress out 
well on the block and the quality of the meat is 
good, though not equal in flavor to that of the 
middle wool breeds. The Lincoln has been ex- 
tensively used by ranchmen in America and Aus- 
tralia for crossing upon Merinos to improve their 
size and mutton qualities. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Sheep Feeding 

The variety of foods suitable for the feeding of 
sheep is extensive. Hay, straw, corn fodder, roots 
of various kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, 
cottonseed and linseed-oil meal, and bran, furnish 
a variety of food from which a proper choice can 
readily be made. The relative feeding values of 
these various substances used as food will deter- 
mine their relative money values, and as these dif- 
fer and fluctuate from time to time, it is often 
necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding, 
to choose the food that is most economical in use, 
although it may be the highest in price. 

Clover and alfalfa hay are the most valuable 
foods for winter use, cut when in blossom, cured 
so as to preserve all good qualities and kept free 
from damp and mold. Where the main object in 
view is the production of market lambs, either kind 
of hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the 
ewes. They will also be found preferable as the 
staple and cheapest fodder when sheep are pur- 
chased for feeding for market and the most rapid 
growth of flesh is desirable. 

Well-cured pea straw will be chosen by sheep 
next to clover or alfalfa hay, and before timothy 
or any other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by 
sheep, and is a healthful food, especially if har- 
vested before the oats were dead ripe. Barley, 
wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a 
flock, but are not sufficiently nutritive to contrib- 
ute much to the growth of flesh or wool, and 

254 



SHEEP FEEDING 255 

should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain 
or oil-cake meal. 

ROOTS ALWAYS FINE FOR SHEEP 

Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value 
for winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper 
quantities, their laxative effect healthfully opposes 
the tendency of dry hay or straw to produce cos- 
tiveness, and in addition they supply a considerable 
proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for 
the growing animal and its fleece. But if fed in 
excess, the large quantit}^ of water they contain, 
and their large bulk, especially when they are fed 
in the winter, reduce the temperature of the animal 
too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the 
health. When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any 
but very small quantities, abortion is frequently 
produced, and this ill effect has been noticed more 
conspicuously when the roots have been manured 
heavily with superphosphate of lime. This has 
been noticed by some extensive feeders and breed- 
ers in England, where that fertilizer is largely used 
in root culture, and their experience should serve 
as a warning to us. 

The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by 
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only 
that the foetus is affected by the presence of a mass 
of very cold matter in the stomach of the ewe, but 
that there is an irritation produced in the intestines 
by this unacceptable food, which causes the death 
and expulsion of the foetus. Nothing of the kind 
has occurred in flocks that have been largely fed 
on cooked roots, applied at such a temperature that 
would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, there- 
fore, be understood that it is the low temperature, 




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256 



SHEEP FEEDING 25/ 

generally near freezing, and often below it, at 
which the roots are given, and nothing in the roots 
themselves that acts thus injuriously. Knowing 
this, the ill effect likely to be produced may easily 
be avoided. 

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are 
sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas, yellow turnips and 
white or corn horn turnips, and are to be preferred 
in the order in which they are here enumerated. 

Roots Are Nutritions — Considering the large 
quantity of water contained in them, roots may be 
considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed 
in conjunction with dry fodder, and in proper pro- 
portions, are generally conducive to the health and 
growth of the sheep. Their effect upon the quality 
of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some 
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The 
proper quantity of roots to be given depends upon 
the kind of sheep. As a safe guide, it may be es- 
timated that one bushel of roots will be a sufficient 
daily allowance for ten sheep weighing 150 pounds 
each live weight, if along with the roots, i^ pounds 
of hay and one-half pound of meal or bran per 
head be given. 

LET SEVERAL GRAINS BE USED 

Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds, 
furnish the concentrated foods which are found 
needful to maintain sheep in healthful condition, 
or to induce the rapid growth and fattening for the 
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but 
no one alone can be fed with the greatest benefit for 
any length of time. A change of food is both ac- 
ceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and the dif- 
ference in the money value of these articles of food. 



258 FARM STOCK 

which exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary 
to exercise a judicious choice in this respect, in 
order to secure the greatest profit. 

The fat-forming elements in any article of food 
consist of starch, sugar, gum, oil and fat, all car- 
bonaceous matters, or matters rich in carbon, with 
the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and 
oxygen. The chemical composition of these ele- 
ments is very similar and in some of them is nearly 
identical. Thus an animal fed upon starch or 
sugar may become fat, and it is well known that 
bees fed upon sug-ar are able to produce honey or 
wax from this food. In the process of digestion 
and assimilation, starch, sugar and gum are changed 
to fat. This fat is either consumed in the process 
of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the 
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But 
in the consumption of food rich in starch, a much 
larger proportion is necessary to produce a given 
weight of fat, or a given result in the process of 
respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat 
or oil. 

CHOICE MUST BE EXERCISED 

In choosing the variety of food, then, for a spe- 
cial object, as, for instance, the feeding of a young 
growing" animal, or the fattening of a mature ani- 
mal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces 
fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of the pure-bred 
Merino, those foods which would furnish abundant 
flesh should be chosen for the one, and those rich 
in starch and oil for the others. By thus choos- 
ing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy 
in the cost of food, and the object sought is gained 
at the least expense 



SHEEP FEEDING 259 

Much may be gained by varying or mixing the 
food of an animal so as to stimulate the appetite; 
for a healthy animal will increase in weight in 
proportion to the food consumed so long as di- 
gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep 
eats only three pounds of hay per day, but will eat 
and digest, in addition, six pounds of sliced turnips 
or beets with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them, 
a manifest advantage is gained. In changing the 
hay for straw, ten pounds of turnips and one pound 
of bran or oil-cake meal can be consumed, the 
money value of the food may be reduced, and the 
sheep be equally well fed. 

In estimating the amount of a sheep's food, it 
is necessary to take into consideration the age and 
condition of the animal: whether it be in a grow- 
ing state or in a state of maturity; its weight, also 
the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a ram 
serving a number of ewes daily; or a ewe in lamb, 
or suckling a lamb or pair of them. On this ac- 
count, it is absolutely necessary to grade the flock 
and provide different quarters for those which need 
special feeding care. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
The Care and Management of Sheep 

In handling sheep, just remember that they are 
naturally timid and of a nervous disposition. The 
highest success in sheep raising cannot be expected 
unless the flock keeper by his quiet manners and 
gentleness inspires confidence in them. A sudden 
disturbance of any kind, like the bark of a dog, 
will startle the whole flock and sometimes create 
a panic. Some shepherds make a habit of whis- 
tling or talking to the sheep as they approach them 
unexpectedly. 

Whenever sheep are handled, gentleness and 
quietness should be insisted upon. This sort of 
training and custom is of especial value at lambing 
time. The shepherd with experience knows what 
this advice means, and if you will observe him as 
he works day in and day out, with rams, ewes and 
lambs, the wisdom of such attention will be seen 
and its force, in successful management, appre- 
ciated. 

And then remember, too, that the lambing period 
is the most critical time in the life of a flock. Con- 
stant attendance during day and night is called for. 
If the lambing season occurs in cold weather, the 
lambs may become chilled before they are able to 
suck their mother. If twins are produced, the 
mother may give attention to only the stronger one. 
Here it is the shepherd's duty to see that the 
weaker one gets its full supply of nourishment. 

If the young lamb is unable to suckle within a 
few minutes after birth, it should have help, and it 

260 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 26I 

is often necessary to hold the ewe for this purpose. 
Sometimes the mother refuses to own her offspring. 
This trouble can be overcome by shutting her up in 
an individual pen out of the sight of other sheep 
and with only the lamb for company. You may 
even have to hold her a few days until she submits 
to the charge. Some shepherds sprinkle the 
mother's milk over the lambs, often with good 
results. 

When a strange lamb is placed with another ewe, 
due to the death of her own offspring, many prac- 
tices are resorted to in order to induce her to own 
the strange lamb. The common practice is to re- 
move the skin of the dead lamb and to tie on to 
the lamb which is to be adopted. This is an old 
custom and generally satisfactory. 

Should a lamb become chilled after birth, it can 
often be resuscitated by putting it into a pail of 
water as hot as it can stand. It should be covered 
entirely with water, leaving only the nose exposed. 
When the water becomes cool more warm water 
should be added. It may be necessary to do this 
two or three times if the lamb is chilled, after 
which the lamb should be rubbed dry with a towel 
and fed with warm milk heated to blood heat. In 
severe cases a few drops of whisky or brandy 
added to a teaspoonful of water have been given 
with good success and can be generally recom- 
mended. 

After reviving, the lamb can be returned to the 
flock and will require no further attention. When 
Iambs are two to six weeks old the tail should be 
cut off, using for the purpose a sharp jackknife. 
A stub about two inches long should be left. Some 
use a chisel for the purpose. The tail of the sheep 
is a useless appendage, difficult to shear and likely 



262 



FARM STOCK 



to get besmeared and unsightly; consequently with 
farm flocks docking has been resorted to, and is 
now an universal custom. 

WEANING THE LAMBS 

Every flockmaster realizes that the weaning of 
the lambs from the mother ewes is generally an 




ALL THREE ARE FRIENDS 
A case where the dog and sheep get on well together. 



ordeal that is attended with a good deal of mani- 
festation of displeasure in the way of bleating on 
the part of both the ewes and the lambs. From 
the time the lambs are dropped in the spring 
to the time they are taken from the flock, they are 
dependent on the mother ewes, first, for the milk 
which sustains them, and second, for the company 
or companionship. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 263 

When the lambs are taken from the ewes and 
compelled to suffer from hunger and lonesome- 
ness, it is no wonder that they bewail their condi- 
tion and shrink in flesh, and that a considerable 
time may be required to recover and start along- 
maintaining themselves and improving in condition. 

I have noticed that large, thrifty lambs, that are 
good eaters, make less ado when taken away from 
the flock than the weaker and unthrifty ones. I 
have also found that if the lamb's stomach is well 
filled with nutritious food, it stands the loss of 
companionship much better, and more readily 
adapts itself to the new conditions. A little extra 
pains taken to prepare for weaning will be paid in 
saving of loss of flesh, as well as a good deal of 
worry and bleating on the part of the ewes and 
lambs. 

A little while before weaning time arrives it is 
a good plan to teach the lambs to eat some food 
that will take the place of the mother's milk better 
than the grass of the pasture. Get the flock into 
an inclosure, where they will be comfortable after 
they have filled on the grass in the morning and 
give them a light feeding of oats and wheat bran, 
equal parts, and then just at night feed them again 
and turn them out to pasture. The lambs will learn 
to eat the grain with the ewes. 

Taking Lambs from Mothers — After they have 
learned to eat the grain the time can be set for 
separating the ewes from the lambs. On the morn- 
ing of the day set, get the flock In earlier than 
usual, feed and hold until nearly time to turn out, 
when the ewes can be sorted out, the lambs fed 
and the ewes driven to a distant field out of hear- 
ing of the lambs. The lambs can be turned into 



264 FARM STOCK 

pasture where they will give their attention to feed- 
ing on the grass; and if taken in each day, fed a 
fairly hberal portion of grain, given access to all 
the water needed and plenty of grass to eat, they 
will make a constant growth at weaning time. If 
kept improving the wether lambs will soon be in 
condition to command a good price for the drover 
or feeder and the best ewes can be retained to in- 
crease the size of the breeding flock. 

SHEEP DURING THE LAMBING SEASON 

It is greatly important that lambs be strong 
and vigorous at birth. When they come delicate, 
it is difficult to carry them on without loss, and the 
extra labor entailed is very great. That they will 
not come large and strong is a foregone conclusion, 
unless the ewes have been properly fed, properly 
housed and properly exercised. 

Food for Breeding Ewes — In localities where the 
ground remains uncovered during much of the 
winter, fortunate are those flockmasters who have 
a pasture with a reasonably tough sod on which 
the sheep may graze. With grass in plentiful sup- 
ply, even though partially dead, the ewes will need 
but little else until the approach of the lambing 
season. 

Where the ground is deeply covered with snow, 
the best fodder that can be given to breeding ewes 
is clover or alfalfa hay. If this can be given only 
once a day, the other feed may consist of a good, 
finely grown corn stover, well-cured millet, or good 
oat straw. If hay or alfalfa are fed but once a 
day, it should be fed in the evening, as the sheep 
will eat the other fodder more readily in the morn- 
ino- when thev are hunerv. Pea straw, well saved. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 265 

is also an excellent fodder for them. The same is 
true of peas and oats or vetches and oats grown 
together. 

When thus supplied with good fodder, they do 
not need much grain until toward the approach of 
the lambing season. They will be in better condi- 
tion, however, at the lambing time if they have 
been fed a small quantity of grain previously. No 
grain is more suitable for them than whole oats 
fed alone, or, what is better, along with a little bran 
or oil cake. Both bran and oil cake are not neces- 
sary, but they will do no harm if both are present. 

Field roots are excellent, but before the lambing 
season it is not necessary to feed more than two to 
three pounds a day. If roots cannot be had and 
corn silage can, it will be in order to feed silage 
at least once a day. When clover or alfalfa hay 
are fed either of these goes admirably with silage. 
The latter is a carbohydrate and the hay is a pro- 
tein food. When straw is fed as one of the feeds, 
what is left over answers nicely for bedding. As 
a rule, the aim should be to clean out daily the racks 
on which sheep are fed their fodder. 

Suitable Shelter — The housing for breeding ewes 
may be simple. It should possess two requisites. 
These are freedom from drafts and capability of 
protecting from storms. But in no instance should 
the quarters be confined. Usually the ewes should 
have perfect liberty of access to a protected yard on 
the sunny side of the shed. This yard oug'ht to be 
well bedded. It is a fatal mistake to have sheep 
housed too warmly, even at night. They are not 
liable to suffer from the cold if protected from 
winds. 

Suitable Exercise — Sheep will take ample exer- 
cise if thev have the freedom of one or more fields 



266 FARM STOCK 

when the snow is not deep or entirely absent. It is 
when the snow is deep and they are unable to paw 
it off that they are in danger of becoming too slug- 
gish. The more highly they are fed the more slug- 
gish they are. To avoid this it may be necessary 
to put feed in a rack some distance away from the 
shed, and located, if possible, in a secluded and 
protected spot. If the snow is deep, clear away 
by using the snowplow and strew a little hay here 




A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS 

These healthy, vigorous sheep are looking into a bright 
future in this country. They are good feeders, possess good 
weight and give good account of themselves, wherever placed. 

and there along it. The ewes will soon find the 
way to the feed. They will make a pilgrimage to 
it daily if the food is enticing. 

Exercise Necessary — When the ewes do not take 
ample exercise, the lambs are lacking in vigor when 
they are born. When this happens the task of car- 
ing for them while they are young is difficult and 
the losses that occur will probably prove serious. 
After the lambs are born and on their feet, the 
ewes may be fed grain with much freedom. A 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEF 26/ 

mixture, as of oats and barley or oats, bran and 
barley, will furnish a good grain supplement. Roots 
also may be fed with the utmost freedom. 

BREEDING EWES IN WINTER 

Every flock owner should carefully examine his 
flock in the fall, and if there are any lice or ticks 
on them, they should be dipped. Even if the 
weather is quite cold, dip them by all means. One 
can never afford to feed lice and ticks, and espe- 
cially he cannot when sheep and feed are as valu- 
able as they are this season. The water for dipping 
may be warmed some, then if the sheep are kept 
out of the wind in a reasonably warm place, they 
will not suft'er. 

Some of the Best Feeds — For their feed in the 
line of roughage, there is nothing better or cheap- 
er than alfalfa or clover hay, bean straw and roots. 
If the ewes go into winter in good condition and 
have plenty of these feeds, they ^vill need no grain 
until within a few weeks of lambing time. Even if 
one has only a fair amount of these feeds and gives 
them with corn stover and straw, the flock will 
usually do well. 

When one has not enough alfalfa, clover or pea- 
vine hay or bean straw to supply at least one good 
feed a day, some grain should be given to. furnish 
a fair amount of protein. The ewe must have a 
certain amount of this kind of feed to properly 
nourish the fcetus and grow her wool. Oats are 
splendid for this purpose, but in recent years they 
are very high in price. I have found gluten a very 
good feed to mix with silage or with the chopped 
roots. If one can get cull beans, a few of them 
are good. 



268 FARM STOCK 

It is very seldom with a fair sized flock that all 
the individuals feed well. Those that do not should 
be separated from the flock and be given special 
care. 

Keep Sheep Cool and Dry — It is not necessary 
that the sheep pens should be warm; in fact, it is 
better that they should not be, at least until lambing 
time. Quarters that are cool, well lighted and 
ventilated — with special emphasis on the ventilated 
— and will keep the feet and back of the sheep dry, 
are ideal. 

One of the greatest mistakes made with the 
breeding flock in the winter is that the sheep are 
not given enough exercise. I usually draw corn 
stover to a field that is to be plowed in the spring, 
and feed the sheep there at noon every day that is 
not stormy, or when the ground is soft. If you 
cannot feed this way, see that your ewes are ex- 
ercised in some way. You cannot have good, vig- 
orous sheep and lambs without it. 

Amount of Grain to Feed — The amount of grain 
and the length of time the flock should be grained 
before lambing depends upon the condition of the 
ewes, and whether you are having early or late 
lambs. If the lambs are to come early, the ewes 
should be in the pink of condition, or they will not 
be able to keep the lambs growing well until grass 
comes. On the other hand, if the lambs are to 
come late, but a short time before the mother is 
to go out to grass, she will require not nearly so 
much grain. 

Start Grain Ration Gradually— Whether they 
are to be fed little or much, great care should be 
taken in getting them on the grain ration. No 
farm animals are as apt to be injured by abrupt 
change of feed as are sheep. Feed small amounts 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 269 

to begin with, and see to it that a few do not get the 
major portion of that. Increase the amount grad- 
ually and the sheep will be all right. Very many 
Iambs are weakened before birth by the injudicious 
feeding of the mother. 

Silage has been condemned by many as a feed 
for breeding ewes, but I am satisfied, after several 
years' experience, that if one commences by feed- 
ing very little and increases the amount slowly, it 
is not onl}^ a safe but a splendid food. 

Giz'c Plenty of IVater — Sheep will get along and 
live a long time without water, but for them to do 
their best it is just as essential that they should be 
supplied with pure water, and have it as they want 
it, as for other animals. Feed is so scarce and 
high this season that many flocks will be underfed, 
their owners thinking that they are economizing 
by so doing. The results will be poor, light fleeces 
of wool, and a small, inferior lamb crop. Economy 
of this sort always makes men poorer instead of 
richer. Keep no more sheep than you can feed 
well. 

FEEDING PREGNANT EWES 

It is very essential that the rations supplied the 
ewe flock possess the quality to assist rapid and 
thorough assimilation. A narrow ration of wither 
roughage or grain is more apt to cause a sluggish 
condition throughout the digestive tract and ul- 
timately influence the development of the foetus. 
Food that can be readily acted upon by the diges- 
tive secretions and made available for immediate 
use is very desirable in the composition of a ration 
for pregnant ewes. The greater the variance in 



270 FARM STOCK 

any well-balanced ration the more readily is it di- 
gested and transformed into available nourish- 
ment. 

Exclusive Roughage Ration Undesirable — Preg- 
nant ewes should never be confined to an exclusive 
roughage ration, though it may possess the neces- 
sary ingredients to comprise a well-balanced ration. 
Clover hay is one of the best roughages available 
for pregnant ewes, but under no conditions should 
they be limited to this one element of diet. If it 
is convenient, clover hay can be fed twice daily, 
say morning and evening, but for an intermediate 
feed, corn stover, bean pods or bright oat straw 
should be supplied. Under no conditions should 
wet, musty roughage of any kind be fed ewes in 
the advanced stage of pregnancy. 

Succulent Food — It is very important in the com- 
position of a roughage ration for the ewe flock at 
this time to include some succulent matter. Roots 
are beyond question the most succulent food avail- 
able for sheep. Many flockmasters make it a point 
to grow a few tons of roots to feed during the 
advanced stage of pregnancy. However, the flock- 
owner who has no roots at hand to feed must af- 
ford some other solution. Silage can be fed with 
excellent results at this time, although care must 
be exercised not to overfeed. I am feeding a part 
ration to my breeding ewes and they are doing 
finely. I remove the larger portion of the corn, 
thus reducing the danger of overfeeding on grain. 
It is not advisable to feed silage more than once 
daily to pregnant ewes. 

The Grain Food — The grain ration should be 
selected with considerable precaution, so that the 
right proportions can be computed. Select as wide 
a ration as possible. Do not feed too heavily upon 



CARE AXD MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 27 1 

corn. I have found that a grain ration composed 
of three pounds of oats, one of hnseed or oil cake, 
one of wheat bran and from two to three pounds 
of corn meal, depending upon the flesh condition 
of the ewes, makes a very excellent grain ration. If 
the ewes are thin in flesh the corn proportion of 
the ration may be slightly increased, never to ex- 
ceed the above proportion. The importance of 
plenty of clean, fresh water at this time cannot be 
overestimated, and salt should also be constantly 
before the flock. 

STOCK RAMS IN SUMMER 

Where but a small flock of sheep is kept and but 
one ram, there are no serious objections to allow- 
ing the ram to graze with the flock when the pas- 
tures are good, but should the flock be large and 
the rams many, it is different. : 

Several Rams in Separate Pasture — ^AVhen sev- 
eral stock rams are kept they are given a small pas- 
ture by themselves. If they can be given a change 
of pasture occasionally, they are likely to do bet- 
ter, but this is frequentl}^ found impracticable. As 
stock rams are usually grained somewhat heavily 
at the mating season, and as they are generally 
given considerable grain food during the winter, 
the aim should be to bring them through a portion 
of the summer, at least, without grain. 

This can usually be done when the grazing is 
plentiful, nutritious and succulent. The effect on 
the system is cooling. The digestion is less taxed, 
and the influence exerted is renovating. But when 
the season draws near for service, it may be neces- 
sary to feed grain to them again, that they may 
begin the season's service strong and vigorous. 



272 



FARM STOCK 



Sale Rams — The management of sale rams, that 
is, of shearlings, may be different. With them 
growth is incomplete. It is necessary that they 
shall be in good flesh when sold. They should not 
only hav£ good grazing, but it may be necessary to 
give them a certain proportion of grain through all 
the season. Of course, the amount should not be 
large nor the food stimulating and heating, as 
when corn is fed. There is probably no kind of 
grain better adapted for such feeding than oats, 
and, in some instances, the grazing may be so good 
that it is not necessary even to feed any grain. The 
feeding of the grain should be gauged by the condi- 
tion of the rams and the nature of the pasture. 

SHEAR SHEEP EARLY 

The season for shearing sheep is much affected 
by locality. There are climates in which two 
shearings would doubtless be better. The time for 
shearing in the northern states, say north of par- 
allel 40 degrees, is April, as practiced now by the 
best shearers. Years ago, when washing preceded 
shearing, it was common to defer shearing to a 
later period. Sheep now are usually shorn without 
being washed. When the flock is much infested 
with ticks, the time of shearing should be advanced. 
But it may be necessary to confine shorn sheep when 
the shearing is done very early. 

The sheep-shearing machine is fast superseding 
the shears. So much more quickly and neatly does 
it do the work that it will pay to invest in one of 
these machines, even for a small flock of sheep. It 
is usually practicable to harness various kinds of 
power so as to run these machines, but when this 
may not be practicable they may be run by hand. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 2/3 

one person shearing the sheep and the other fur- 
nishing the power. 

The machines do excellent work. If any criti- 
cism is to be made of them on this score, it is to the 
effect that they leave the sheep, as it were, too bare. 
The danger of maiming the sheep by way of cut- 
ting the skin is less also than with the hand shears. 

Of course, shearing will still be done to some ex- 
tent with the shears. When so done, it is impor- 
tant that the shears be kept sharp. It is also 
important that they have a spring that works 
easily. Shears with a stiff spring work hard. 
Wherever done, the floor should be clean that the 
wool may be kept as free as possible from all ad 
mixture with dirt and filth. 

When sheep and lambs are being fattened, it is 
important that the shearing be done early. The 
stimulating food that is being given to them 
causes more heat in the system than would other- 
wise be present. This becomes so serious as soon as 
the days become warm as to interfere with the 
gains of the sheep. The importance of promptness, 
therefore, in attending to this matter, is very con- 
siderable. Years ago, shearing was often deferred 
until some time in June. The suffering thus en- 
tailed must have been considerable. The sheep also 
frequently lost considerable quantities of wool 
through rubbing and in other ways. This, in a 
large flock, was a considerable item. There was 
also usually some loss from the soiling of the wool 
around the buttocks of the sheep when the pastures 
became succulent and abundant. 

HANDLING WOOL 

As soon as the fleece is removed, it should be 
spread upon a folding box or table, the inside being 



274 



FARM STOCK 



downward. The sides of this box fold inward, 
thus causing the sides of the fleece to overlap one 
another, and the ends likewise cause a similar lap- 
ping in the other direction. The strings which are 
to tie the fleece are put into place in grooves for 
them before the fleece is folded. When thus fold- 
ed the strings are tied. The fleece is folded up 
and tied into a neat roll, the smooth side of the 
wool only showing outward. No filth or tags 
should be rolled up with the wool, as this will be 
found out in time and will seriously react against 
the seller. When no table is at hand, the fleece 
should be spread similarly on a clean surface. The 
sides should then be folded in and the wool rolled 
up in the opposite direction and similarly tied, using 
such twine as is made for the purpose. 

STORING WOOL 

When the wool has been thus rolled up, it is next 
put into sacks awaiting shipment. The sacks are 
suspended so that they stand erect and the respec- 
tive fleeces are dropped into this. They are then 
tramped down or pressed down into the sacks which 
are sewed at the mouth when full and are then 
stored in any dry place until ready to ship. Wool 
may be kept some time if necessary, but it is prob- 
ably true that, taking one year with another, the 
price will average as much when the wool has first 
been removed as after it has been stored a while. 
The wool is sometimes stored in a warehouse built 
for the purpose, convenient to some place of ship- 
ment. Of course, there are certain charges, as a 
rule, for such storage. 

Store in Dry Place — When the number of fleeces 
is small any dry place will answer in which to store 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 2/5 

the wool, that is free from dust and dirt and pro- 
J:ected from the same, and that is safe from injury 
by wild animals or rodents. Even when the num- 
ber of fleeces is small, it may mean considerable to 
the owner to have them done up nicely and kept in 
good condition until sold. 




LONG WOOL AND LOTS OF MUTTON 

The mutton sheep is now claiming its own. The demand 
for mutton is on the increase and at satisfying prices to the 
man who produces it. 



RAISING SHEEP FOR WOOL ALONE 

Sheep cannot be profitably grown for wool alone 
on high-priced agricultural lands when wool brings 
but 20 to 25 cents a pound. In large flocks, under 
western range conditions, where land is cheap and 
one man can handle from 2,000 to 4,000 sheep, there 
is often considerable profit in growing sheep for 
wool alone; but even under western conditions a 
very large number of ranchmen believe in growing 



2/6 FARM STOCK 

a general purpose sheep which will not only yield a 
good fleece, but also a good mutton carcass. Mut- 
ton growers in the eastern states frequently ob- 
tain as much money for their fleeces as those do 
who grow sheep for wool alone. 

In years past Merino wool has been the chief 
wool on the American market. The medium and 
coarse grades, supplied largely by the mutton type 
of sheep, have been offered in very much smaller 
quantities, as a result of which better prices have 
been paid in recent years than for Merino wool. 
By far the larger proportion of woolen goods is 
manufactured from Merino wool; but for some 
purposes longer wools are superior and for one 
purpose or another every grade and length of wool 
can be used. For all grades of wool, however, 
there is apparently a bright future. 

The wool of sheep grows continuously through- 
out the year. If the feed of the sheep is uniform 
and nutritious, a uniform quality of wool will be 
produced according to the breed of sheep. Any- 
thing which affects the health of the animal also 
affects the quality of the wool. During a period 
of sickness or scant rations, the wool may tempo- 
rarily stop growing. When the animal recovers, 
or when better rations are fed, the wool begins 
growth again. As a result, however, of this in- 
terruption, a weak spot is produced in the wool, 
which g-reatly decreases its strength and value for 
manufacturing purposes. 

Yolk — By yolk in the wool is meant the natural 
grease or oil secreted by the skin. Under normal 
conditions the yolk passes down through the fiber 
and escapes apparently at the end, where it gradu- 
ally works its way back into the fleece, giving it a 
kind of creamy appearance. In healthy sheep the 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 27/ 

yolk constitutes about one-third of the weight of 
the fleece. At the factory, the fleeces are scoured 
and the yolk washed out before the wool is used 
for manufacturing purposes. 

We have seen that grain feeding or the feeding 
of nitrogenous rations contributed to the produc- 
tion of the yolk and consequently a heavier fleece. 
The feeding of foods rich in oil also seems to 
favor the secretion of yolk. The yolk is of great 
importance in the fleece, as it keeps it soft and 
compact, clean and bright on the inside, and is a 
protection to the sheep in turning water. It is 
a characteristic index of the health fulness of the 
sheep, since in sheep underfed or unthrifty it may 
be nearly lacking, while if present in excessive 
quantities, indicated by accumulations in flakes, it 
may be taken as a sign of unthriftiness, due to 
overfeeding. 

In examining the fleece on the sheep, it is first 
opened over the shoulder. This is the point where 
the finest and soundest wool of the fleece is likely 
to be found. In parting the wool, the hand should 
be used in a flat position. The poorest, coarsest 
wool of the fleece is found on the thigh, while the 
thinnest wooled portion is likely to be found on 
the belly. The more nearly the fleece approaches 
in length, thickness and fineness the wool on the 
shoulders, the greater is the value of the fleece. A 
dense fleece is especially desirable, as it affords 
greater protection to the sheep from cold and ex- 
posure to wind and rain, and protects the inner 
wool from dirt and dust. 

Shearing Sheep — Sheep are sheared once a year 
in all portions of the United States, except the 
Southwest, where they are sheared twice a year, in 



278 FARM STOCK 

April or May, and again in October. The shear- 
ing is done either by hand or by machinery. Good 
shearers in the East can shear from 40 to 60 sheep 
a day on the average, and the price for shearing is 
from 8 to 10 cents a head. 

Hand Machines — On small farms or where 
there are less than 400 or 500 sheep to shear, the 
use of sheep shearing machines is of very doubtful 
economy. On a small scale shearing machines are 
run by hand power, requiring one strong boy or 
man to turn the machine and another to handle 
the clippers. The clippers work on the principle 
of the sickle of a mowing machine; the knife 
moves very rapidly, the power being transmitted 
through a flexible shaft. Sheep cannot be sheared 
any faster by machine than by hand; with care, 
however, the wool can be cut closer and perhaps 
a little more fleece secured than by hand shearing. 
The extra man, however, required to run the ma- 
chine more than offsets any greater value of the 
wool. Where, however, a man has a flock of 1,000 
or more to shear, and can supply the power for 
running the machines by steam or gasoline, it may 
be found economical. In the hands of the novice 
a little better job can be done with the machine 
clippers, perhaps, than with hand sheers, otherwise 
there is no advantage in them. A further disad- 
vantage is that the knives must be returned to the 
factory for sharpening, oftentimes causing delay 
at a critical time in the shearing. 

The time to shear sheep in the northern states is 
April or May. The earlier the sheep can be sheared 
in the season, without causing discomfort from 
cold to the sheep, the greater the weight of fleece 
is likely to be and the better the quality of the 
wool. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 279 

Washing Sheep — Some years ago, sheep were 
generally washed before shearing. This practice 
has almost entirely gone out of vogue. The wash- 
ing in creeks or otherwise is entirely ineffective 
from the manufacturer's standpoint and practically 
as good prices are secured for unwashed wool now 
as for the so-called washed wool. Of course, if 
shearing is done in the latter part of April, wash- 
ing is generally out of the question, as at that 
early time of the year it would endanger both the 
health of the sheep and the men employed to wash 
them. 

When sheep are washed they are usually driven 
to some river or creek, where the water is waist 
deep, and taken one by one into the stream. When 
a sheep is thoroughly soaked, the fleece is shaken 
and squeezed so that the dirt is washed away. The 
head of the sheep should, of course, be held above 
water, and after they are washed they should be 
turned on a clean, grassy lot to dry. Oftentimes 
the fleece is so heavy with water that the sheep 
will need assistance in getting on their feet. Ewes 
in lamb must be handled with especial care, though 
in most flocks the washing will not take place until 
June, when the lambing season should be over. 

Clean Wool — Great care must be taken in the 
winter feeding of sheep and housing to prevent the 
wool from becoming filled with chaff, burs, etc. 
The wool is valued ahvays on the basis of its 
scoured weight, and the buyer always allows for 
whatever dirt may be present in it. The wool of 
sheep that have access to a . straw stack in winter 
is likely to be filled with chaff and will not bring 
within two to five cents a pound as much as it 
would if the wool was free from chaff. Likewise 
wool which is full of sand or burs is docked by the 



28o FARM STOCK 

buyer. The dockage is not so much on account 
of the weight of the burs and chaff itself, as of the 
difficulty in separating these substances from the 
fleece. This is usually a very tedious and expen- 
sive process and cannot be done without more or 
less injury to the wool fiber. Racks should be 
provided for sheep, at which they may eat without 
getting their necks full of chafT, seeds and dust. 

Tying Wool — Sheep should be sheared on a 
clean floor or bench free from dust, chaff or other 
litter in order that the fleece may be kept perfectly 
clean. If the wool is put in sacks or bales, no 
tying is required. Otherwise the sides of the 
fleeces should be turned in and the fleece rolled to- 
gether inside out and tied with a light, strong 
string, using as little as possible to securely hold 
the fleece together. The use of common, heavy, 
large-sized sheep twine is especially objectionable, 
not so much because it increases the weight of the 
fleece two or three ounces, but because the fiber 
becomes mixed with the wool and must be combed 
out before the wool can be used for manufactur- 
ing. Mumford found that the lower price of 
Michigan wools as compared with Pennsylvania 
and Ohio wools was largely due to the old square 
method of doing up the fleece and the use of heavy, 
coarse twine in tying it. 

The ^ best twine to use is about No. i8 hemp or 
small linen. If the box is used to do up the fleece, 
it should be a little longer than usual and smaller 
and much less twine used. 

The tags should be trimmed off the fleece and 
sold separately. They should never be done up in 
the fleece. When sheep die of natural causes the 
wool may be pulled off and sold. This pulled wool 
is not as valuable as sheared live wool, as it will 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 28 1 

not take dye as well and should always be sold 
separately as pulled wool. Likewise the pelt of a 
dead sheep is much less yaluable than from one 
that has been killed. 

Paint marks on the wool represent so much loss 
to the manufacturer and consequently lower the 
price for the wool. 

Classification of Wool — The grower will seldom 
be in a position to sort his wool in such a manner 
that it would be any benefit to the manufacturer. 
It should, howeyer, be graded uniformly as re- 
gards fleeces of different breeds, putting those to- 
gether of the same breed and character. Beyond 
this the grower will seldom be able to go. Wool is 
classified in seyeral different ways and in order 
that the grower may interpret the market prices of 
these different grades, a brief account will be giyen 
of them. 

In a broad way, wool is classified as Domestic, 
Territory and Carpet or Blanket wool. By Do- 
mestic wool is understood the kind of wool gener- 
ally obtained from sheep grown under general 
farm conditions. It should be bright, free from 
sand, dirt, burs, etc. Should it contain these ma- 
terials, it would fall into the Territory class. 

The Territory wools are so called because they 
are produced most abundantly in the territories 
and are generally discolored and dirty with sand, 
burs, seed, etc. Where, howeyer, range wool is 
clean, it falls into the Domestic class. 

The Carpet or Blanket wool is composed of 
wools containing a large amount of hairy fiber and 
kemp. By kemp is meant the coarse, white hairs 
which are found mixed with the wool in greater or 
less cjuantity. Kemp is usually prominent in the 



282 FARM STOCK 

face, the forearm and inside of the flank. When- 
ever kemp is found in these latter places, it is like- 
ly to be more or less abundant throughout the 
whole breed. This kemp or hair does not take dye 
readily and on this account injures the fleece for 
manufacturing, except for the coarser grades of 
goods, like carpets and blankets. In breeding sheep 
for wool, those which exhibit kemp should be fat- 
tened for market. 

The Domestic and Territory wool may be di- 
vided into three classes designated as clothing or 
carding wool. Delaine and combing wool. This 
classification is based entirely on the length, quality 
and strength of the wool. And each one of these 
classes may be graded as fine, medium or coarse. 

Generally speaking, clothing wools are short 
wools of relatively fine quality and less than 2^ 
inches in length. The Delaine wools are also fine 
wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos, which 
grow a long, strong wool staple, 2^ to 3 inches in 
length, while combing wools are those over 3 
inches in length which are sound. Nearly all of the 
coarser long wools are graded as combing wools. 
However, a wool which may be long enough for 
combing, if it be unsound, is classed as clothing or 
carding wool. 



CHAPTER XX. 

The Diseases of Sheep 

The diseases of sheep faU into two principal 
classes, those arising from exhaustion, run-down 
condition of the system and general debility; and 
those due to the presence of parasitic animals. 
There is no reasonable cause for the first class if 
the sheep have been properly fed, handled and cared 
for, but parasites are A^ery common both on and 
in the sheep. Its thick wool and comparatively 
thin skin afford a most favorable lodging place 
and feeding ground for the class of vermin that 
dwell on the surface of the body; while of its 
internal organs, not only the stomach and the 
bowels, but the liver, brain and nostrils are the 
chosen habitat of various low forms of animal 
life. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Colic — This is a disease similar to bloating in 
cattle and is known by the swelling of the third 
stomach in the sheep by food, water or gases. 
The most frequent cause is due to feeding on green 
clover or alfalfa, especially when wet with rain or 
dew. It may arise, also, from indigestion or from 
musty food. The disease is readily recognized 
by the swelling of the belly on the left side, which 
appears while the animal is still feeding or shortly 
after. You will note, also, the oppressed condi- 
tion of breathing, the bowels are constipated, and 
the eyes are anxious and wild and there is much 

283 



284 



FARM STOCK 



pain. Some shepherds are not specially concerned 
so long as this swelling is on the left side only, 
but when it reaches the right side, the animal is 
in imminent danger. About the only help now 
is to use a trocar, or sharp pointed penknife, 
making an opening to the point where the accumu- 
lation occurs. The penetration should be kept 
open by the use of a goose quill or some hollow 




a/i'"\\;i' 



!' r\iii,x<'-N>^^'"^^ 



0" 



TWISTED STOMACH WORMS 

A common attitude observed when sheep are afflicted 
with twisted stomach worms. The animal loses in flesh, and 
unless relief is found in time, dies. The parasite is shown 
in the illustration. 



tube. Kneading with the hands the swollen stomach 
is also helpful. 

Foot Rot — This is one of the most common dis- 
eases of American sheep and there have been few 
sections or few farms free from it. It is always 
contagious, due to a germ that harbors in the earth 
and grass. , 

The forefeet are usually first attacked. Lame- 
ness is there noticed and soon becomes complete; 
the appetite becomes poor; fever sets in and the 



THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 285; 

animal dies from general exhaustion. The offen- 
sive odor of the true foot rot is so characteristic 
that once experienced you can use it as a certain 
guide thereafter in recognizing the disease. The 
old practice has been to pare the hoof so as to 
rid it of all this diseased portion. This gives tem- 
porary relief only. The best sort of treatment is 
to keep no animals with diseased feet on the farm, 
to move the sheep from one pasture to another 
and to frequently till and cultivate so as to have 
the land pure and wholesome and free from the 
disease. 

Constipation in Lambs — Lambs, especially those 
which are fed immoderately either on cow's milk 
or the milk of other ewes, are often liable to con- 
stipation. The bowels cease to act and the animal 
droops and after a while lies down. Once affected, 
there is little to do for the lamb. A change in 
food and some purgative or laxative are helpful. 

Diarrhoea in Lambs — This disease frequently 
attacks whole flocks on first feeding on green 
grass. It is usually of no danger, but when indi- 
vidual cases call for attention, treat on general 
principles, because it may be more than a simple 
loose condition of the bowels. Real diarrhoea is 
often fatal and the lambs must receive the closest 
attention. It may be due to exposure, some sud- 
den change in temperature, but is more likely due 
to improper food. The disease usually appears 
without warning, the lamb becomes languid, sad, 
keeping away from other lambs, and frequently 
lies down. The excrement is thin, whitish or 
greenish and in the later stages is quite watery 
and mixed with mucus and blood. 

The first thing to do in treating this trouble is to 
change the food. It is not a bad idea to do that 



286 FARM STOCK 

even though the food does not seem to be the matter 
in fault. If the disease seems to be passing through 
the flock, it is wise to remove all the healthy in- 
dividuals from the infested quarters, placing them 
elsewhere. An immediate remedy is the use of 
the white of an egg beaten in water, then mixed in 
warm milk and so given. 

Intestinal Worms — Sheep are liable to be in- 
fested with a number of varieties of intestinal 
worms, such as tape worms, thread worms and 
round worms. The symptoms these produce are 
very obscure and not often manifest, for the most 
healthy looking sheep when slaughtered often show 
the presence of these parasites in the stomach and 
the intestines. But, of course, the best results can- 
not be secured when present, and if they can be 
gotten rid of, it ought to be done. In many cases, 
the sheep show a dizziness, often staggering and 
falling, and a general impairment of the sight. The 
best way is to consult your veterinarian for some 
treatment so that all trouble in this direction may 
be removed. 

Scab — This is a contagious disease of the skin 
and is due to a parasite in or upon the skin. There 
are different forms of scab, but each kind causes 
itchiness — the most common symptom. Whenever 
3^ou see an animal presenting a very ragged appear- 
ance, bare spots on the different parts of the body, 
with tufts of wool pulled out, and upon examina- 
tion you find reddish pimples, you may feel pretty 
certain that the insect that causes the scab is 
present. Any sort of dip that is now on the market 
will remove this trouble. In the large sheep-grow- 
ing districts, dipping plants are maintained by in- 
individual growers or by small stock companies. In 
this way frequent dipping is possible and takes 



THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 



287 



care of the work very rapidly. Even the small 
farm, with a few sheep, ought to have a small 
dipping plant. A little work, a little cement and 
boards for fencing purposes are all that are neces- 
sary. 

Head Scab — The attacks of this mite are largely 
confined to the head. You will often notice the 
eyes, ears and neck affected also. The mites bore 




SHEEP BOTS 
The arrow shows location of grubs. 



under the skin where not much hair is found, caus- 
ing the formation of little scabs and blotches. The 
crusts may be removed by rubbing with oil and 
then applying any of the dips commonly used in 
the treatment of scab. 

Botfly — This is a serious trouble and is due to 
the sheep botfly that lays its eggs in the ears and 
nostrils, which upon hatching, develop into grubs. 



288 FARM STOCK 

These penetrate deeply into the nasal cavity. When 
completing their life as a grub, they fall out, come 
out of the nose, go down into the ground for a 
short while, after which they come out as a botfly. 
Grubs are very disagreeable and painful when in 
the nostrils and sometimes go so far into the head 
that they never get out. 

It is diflicult to treat this trouble, the best way 
being to dislodge the grubs by the use of a feather 
dipped in turpentine and inserted into the nostrils. 
When tar is smeared up the nostrils of the sheep at 
the time the botfly is most active, the difliculty can 
be kept down to a minimum. Some sheep raisers 
bore holes in logs ; these holes are smeared with tar 
and filled with salt. Sheep in getting the salt, 
therefore, keep their noses smeared with tar. 

The Stomach JVorin — This is a parasite that is 
found in the stomach and is a very serious disease 
in the eastern part of the country. Lambs are 
particularly troubled. When afflicted with stomach 
worms, they have digestive disturbances and diar- 
rhoea. The remedy lies more in the nature of 
prevention than cure. Worms are harbored in 
moist pastures and in this way the animals take 
them into their stomachs. Many remedies are pro- 
posed and it is best to see your veterinarian for 
treating the disease. 

Lung Worms — These attack the small air cells 
of the lungs, causing a sort of pneumonia. A 
hacking cough is an indication of the trouble. Of 
course, no medicinal treatment can be given. The 
way to prevent the disease is to seek new pastures 
that are free of the worms. Pastures that have 
not had sheep on them for two or three years are 
free. The old pasture should be plowed up so 
as to completely rid the land of the trouble. 



CHAPTER XXL 
Swine 

The many breeds of hogs have all descended 
from the wild hog that once roamed over Europe, 
Asia and Africa. In evolving from the wild to 
the tame animal, many changes took place. The 
long snout gradually shortened, the skull widened 
between the eyes, the neck lost some of its sharp- 
ness and the legs became short and straight. But 
the most marvelous change was the laying on of 
meat and fat. There's where man came in and 
helped out. He found use for the meat and lard. 
He cultivated the tendency to develop these pro- 
ducts and after a few centuries the modern hog 
was the result. 

The wild hog possesses a head that is large, 
bony and coarse. The large jaw carries the heavy 
tusks that inflict the severest wounds. The neck 
is long and muscular and the loins broad and 
strong. In every way he is a foe fearful to com- 
bat when attacked by an enemy of any sort. He 
likes places that are moist, rather well concealed 
by brush growth, where he can get roots and fruits 
and succulent food, and even has a strong appe- 
tite for worms and snakes and flesh of any kind. 
Many of these characteristics have been lost in 
the modern domestic pig. Our present-day hogs 
may degenerate and become wild and fierce, yet 
they never, to the fullest extent, take to the habits 
of their ancestors. 

The Mortgage Lifter — The hog has been called 
the "mortgage lifter." He reaches, when properly 
fed and managed, maturity at an early age. He 



290 FARM STOCK 

uses Up a large quantity of food for which he 
makes good returns. He is at his best when plenty 
of green food, supplemented with various kinds 
of grains, is provided for his use. Clover or al- 
falfa and corn are the foods most desired by him, 
and when these are furnished he makes the best 
reckoning. 




THE MODERN HOG 

Just nose enough for breathing, ears enough for hearing, 
mouth enough for eating — and most of the rest is meat. 

The hog is one of the most important animals 
'On the farm for meat and money, and no farm 
is complete, be it large or small, unless there be 
a number of these animals to assist in the modern 
business of farming. 

FILLING SWINE ORDERS BY MAIL 

Swine are usually purchased when young if they 
have to be taken any distance. This is owing in 
part to the fact that they are usually carried by 



SWINE 291 

express to avoid the hazard of disease. They are 
also very frequently ordered by mail, as the cost 
of a personal visit would be relatively more than 
the sum invested in the purchase would justify. 
When so ordered they are usually purchased when 
young, not later than the period of weaning, the 
object sought being to keep down the cost of tran- 
sit This is, under any conditions, costly when the 
transit is by express. 

When ordering thus, the persons who order 
should be specific in stating the kind of animal 
wanted, the age at which it is to be shipped, the 
character of the pedigree, and the nature of the 
color markings when these are involved. Of 
course, first of all, the integrity of the breeder 
should be looked into. It would be safe with some 
men to allow the choice to rest with them when 
the knowledge possessed by the purchaser is 
limited. 

The person who receives the order should frank- 
ly say so if he cannot fill it. This would be vastly 
better than to send an animal inferior in any im- 
portant particular. It might involve the loss of 
one sale, but that would be better than to run the 
hazard of losing many sales through shipping such 
an animal. 

When the animal ordered arrives, the purchaser 
should be slow in passing judgment upon it. After 
a journey of some distance in transit, the first view 
is secured under unfa Adorable conditions. Nor 
should any blame be charged against the breeder 
should the animal show undesirable development 
later. This sometimes happens under ^the most 
favorable conditions for making a choice when the 
animals are young. Their subsequent development 
IS frequently disappointing. 



CHAPTER XXIL 

Breeds of Swine 

Poland-China — This hog originated in the 
Miami valley of Ohio, in Butler and Warren coun- 
ties, from miscellaneous crosses of Big China, 
Poland, Byiield, Berkshire and Irish Grazier breeds 
on the common stock. 



Ss^&^ 




A WELL-BRED POLAND-CHINA BOAR 

An Ohio invention to make pork. And in this connection let 
it be said there is no better money maker in aH the world. 



In the early days the breed was variously known 
under such names as Butler County, Warren 
County, Poland, Dick's Crick, Magle, Moore, etc., 
and it was not until the year 1872 that the name 
*'Poland-China" was permanently adopted. 



292 



BREED OF SWINE 293 

Further improvement of the breed occurred in 
Illinois and Iowa and they now constitute the most 
popular breed in the corn belt. The type is now 
firmly fixed and the breed undoubtedly pure. It 
is perhaps the best suited of all breeds to quickly 
convert corn into pork. It will stand close con- 
finement and heavy feeding perhaps better than any 
other of the large breeds, but it is not as good a 
rustler and able to take care of itself as many other 
breeds. The sows are not as fertile as the Berk- 
shire, though some strains are excellent breeders. 

The Poland-China is a black hog, with six white 
points : feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is 
slightly dished and the ear broken about one- fourth 
to one-third from the tip. The breed is character- 
ized by early maturity and nearly perfect form of 
the lard hog type, being very blocky and compact. 
Boars at two years of age should weigh 600 pounds 
and sows 500 pounds. 

Berkshire — The Berkshire breed is of English 
origin and stands next to the Poland-China in popu- 
larity in America. It was first brought to this 
country about 1830. It is a black hog with six 
white points, marked much like the Poland-China, 
white on feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is 
dished, ears short and erect or slightly inclined 
forward, the neck very short and the back arched. 
The Berkshire breed in England is largely used 
for bacon; under Am.erican influences it has de- 
veloped into the lard hog type. The hogs are of 
about the same size as the Poland-Chinas and 
possess about the same qualities. Good hogs weigh 
240 to 300 pounds nine to 12 months of age, and 
mature hogs, 500 to 600 pounds. The specially 
good points in regard to the Berkshire are its early 
maturity, good grazing qualities, adaptability and 




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BREEDS OF SWINE 



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excellent carcass. It is one of the most popmar 
breeds in the South. 

Dufoc-Jersey — This is an American developed 
breed. Its origin, however, is not positively known. 
Red hogs were known to exist in New York as 
early as 1823 and in Connecticut in 1830. Red 
hogs were imported into New Jersey from Spain 
in 1832 and in 1850 into Kentucky from either 
Spain or Portugal. In New Jersey they were first 
advertised in 1870 as Jersey Reds. In New York 
the breed was called Duroc, after a noted stallion, 




DUROC-JERSEY BOAR 
A living factory that makes pork, lard and bacon. 

as early as 1823. These two families of hogs 
possessed like characteristics and were undoubtedly 
of the same origin. 

In form, the Duroc- Jerseys closely resemble the 
Poland-Chinas, but are red in color. The standard 
is a cherry red without spots. It is a coarser breed 
than either the Poland-China or Berkshire, with 
lop ears and numerous wrinkles and creases about 
the back and hind quarters. 

The breed is chiefly noted for its great fecundity 
and remarkably good grazing powers. At six 




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BREEDS OF SWINE 29/ 

months ot age, good specimens of the breed 
should weigh 150 pounds, and at eight or nine 
months, the average should be 275 pounds. Mature 
hogs in good condition average 500 to 600 pounds 
in weight. The breed is of a quiet disposition, 
easily handled, have vigorous appetites and fatten 
rapidly. 

They are one of the best of all breeds for the 
South, as they never sun scald. The breed is most 
popular in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and New 




A MODERN CHESTER WHITE 

The Chester White has held its own throughout all the past 
years. It is a very popular breed in the eastern states. 

York, and is rapidly gaining favor throughout the 
South and West. 

Chester White — This breed originated In Chester 
county, Pennsylvania. It appears that a sea cap- 
tain, James Jefferies by name, imported a pair of 
white hogs from Bedfordshire, England, in 1811. 
This stock, in connection with some Big Chinas, 
was used on the native stock of the country, mostly 
descendants of the Large Yorkshire breed, and 
formed the foundation stock of the present Chester 
White breed. This hog Is the most popular of the 
white breeds, and its blood makes up a large 



298 FARM STOCK 

portion of the mixed black and white grades seen 
throughout the country. 

The breed is white and the hogs among the 
largest, if not the largest, in the country, weighing 
at maturity 600 to 700 pounds and dressing 175 
to 256 pounds when eight to nine months old. 
The hogs are of a quiet disposition, easy fatteners, 
with good grazing qualities. The sows are pro- 
lific, but are inclined to a sullen disposition at pig- 
ging time. Like all other white breeds, the Chesters 




TWO AVERAGE YORKSHIRES 
/ 
While an old breed, the Yorkshire is not well known in 
this country. It is, however, especially esteemed for its 
bacon qualities. 

are not well adapted to southern conditions be- 
cause of injury from sun scalds, mange and other 
troubles. The Chester White, while a large hog, 
has strong, fine bones and a big, lengthy body. 
The face is slightly dished, snout fine and long, 
the ears pendant, jowl rather light, neck short 
and deep. 

The Ohio, or Todd's Improved Chester White, 
has for its foundation Chester County White hogs, 
crossed with a hog owned by S. H. Todd, which 



BREEDS OF SWINE 299 

traced its ancestry back to the Norfolk Thin breeds, 
mixed with Normandy blood. In 1865 this hog 
was crossed with Chester Whites from which 
spring the Improved Chester White. 

Yorkshire — This is an old English white breed. 
Its blood has entered into the formation of prac- 
tically all modern breeds either of English or 
American origin. There are three breeds, the Im- 
proved Large Yorkshires, or the Large Whites, the 
Medium Yorkshires or Medium Whites, and the 
Small Yorkshires or Small Whites. 

These differ chiefly in matter of size. The Small 
Yorkshires owe their refinement to a cross with 
a Chinese hog, while the Medium Yorkshire is the 
outcome of the cross between the Large and Small 
Yorkshire. The old Yorkshire is long in head; 
body and legs large, with coarse, erect ears, with 
a strong coat of white hair. There are usually a 
few pale blue spots in the skin, but the hair on 
these is white. They are prolific, but slow in ma- 
turing. 

This old type has been considerably improved, 
and the new form, under the name of Large York- 
shires, has been recently imported into Canada 
and the United States in comparatively large num- 
bers; Large Yorkshires of the old type have ex- 
isted in the United States for nearly a hundred 
years. 

The Large Improved Yorkshire is fully as large 
as the Chester White, and represents the longest 
breed of hogs we have, though they are not as 
broad as the Chester Whites and do not generally 
grow to such heavy weights. They are especially 
suitable for the production of bacon, have good, 
strong legs, are excellent rustlers, impart a vigor- 
ous constitution to their offspring and are of great 



300 FARM STOCK 

value in crossing on over-refined stock. The sows 
are prolific and good mothers, being probably 
superior in these respects to the Chester Whites. 

As compared with the Chester Whites, they have 
somewhat longer heads, with face dished, more 
pronounced jowl, longer sides, with less girth in 
proportion to length, and are slightly larger in limb, 
and rather more active. 



SMALL YORKSHIRE SOW AND LITTER 

This breed, while not well known, is highly prized by those 
who know it best. It has a place in American farming. 

The Small Yorkshire is finer in quality than the 
Improved, presents greater symmetry and is much 
more compact in form; they mature much earlier, 
but do not attain as heavy weight as the Large 
Yorkshires. 

Tamworth — These pigs originated in England, 
and have been bred for many years, being one of 
the oldest and purest breeds of Britain. The blood 



BREEES OF SWINE 3OI 

of Other breeds has Deen used to but very Httle ex- 
tent in the improvement of the Tamworth. The 
Tamworth resembles the Large Improved York- 
shire, being practically equal to it in size. 

They are a long-bodied, long-legged hog, of a 
red or chestnut color, and especially suitable for 
the production of bacon. They possess great vigor 
and stamina, and impart these characteristics when 
crossed upon other breeds. They mature fully as 
rapidly as the larger breed of lard hogs when 
heavily fed. They are the equal of any breeds in 
grazing qualities and give good results under a 
forced feeding. The proportion of lean to fat 
meat in this breed is unusually high, which makes 
the pork and bacon produced of superior quality. 
No breed surpasses them in prolificacy. 

Cheshire — This white breed of swine originated 
in Jefferson county, New York. It is the outcome 
of crosses between Large Improved Yorkshires 
and Suffolk breeds upon native white hogs. They 
are smaller than any of the breeds described above, 
and possess early maturing qualities in a marked 
degree. They have fair grazing qualities, are 
docile, rank high among the medium breeds as 
bacon producers, and are valuable in crossing upon 
the more slowly maturing breeds for the purpose 
of refining the bone and increasing early maturity. 
They considerably resemble the Berkshire in gen- 
eral appearance except that they are white, are 
not quite so heavy, and are more refined in frame 
and bone. The ears are small, fine, and erect and 
in old animals point slightly forward. 

Hampshire or Thin-Rind — This hog traces its 
origin to Hampshire, England. It was introduced 
in Kentucky as early as 1825, where it has been 
carefully bred ever since. These hogs are black 




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BREEDS OF SWINE 3O3 

in color, with a band 4 to 12 inches wide en- 
circhng the body and including the front legs, 
which are also white. This gives the breed a 
striking appearance. The head is small, ears of 
medium length, slightly inclined forward, light 
jowls, broad back of nearly uniform width, heavy 
hams, legs well set apart, active and muscular. The 
sows are prolific and uniformly good mothers. 
The breed has excellent grazing qualities and easily 
attains a weight of 300 pounds at 12 months of age. 

In crossing, they transmit their qualities and 
markings with great uniformity. The breed is 
comparatively new, but owing to its handsome ap- 
pearance and other good qualities is very likely 
to increase in popularity. 

Stiff oik — The hog known as the Suffolk is a 
black hog, while the hog called Suffolk in America 
refers to a white breed. Good authorities, how- 
ever, consider the American strain of white pig 
as merely the Little Yorkshire under another name. 
The Black Suffolk is one of the smaller breed of 
hogs. The head is short, snout turned up similar 
to that of the Small Yorkshires, body deep, ribs 
well sprung, with short, small bones and legs. The 
breed possess early maturing qualities in a 
marked degree, is medium in size, lays on fat 
rapidly and dresses out a high percentage- of meat. 

What is know^n as the American or White Suf- 
folk is a hog somewhat similar in general appear- 
ance except that the color is yellowish white, per- 
fectly free from spots or other colors. In general, it 
may be described as a short-legged pig, with a mod- 
erately long body, but wide and deep, and a much- 
dished head. It is adapted to intensive conditions 
where grazing lands are scarce and expensive and 
for producing a good quality of quickly grown pork. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 3O5 

Essex — The Essex is another representative of 
the smaller black breeds of England, originating 
in Essex. As bred in America, they attain a weight 
of 250 to 400 pounds at maturity. They have a 
fine head, short nose, nicely dished face, thin, erect 
ears, short jowl, with a short, firm-boned leg. 
Especially good results have been reported with 
this breed in the South, but in the northern states, 
it will never be a serious competitor of the larger 
breeds like the Poland-Chinas or Berkshires. 

Razor-Back — The hog, commonly known as the 
Razor-Back, is a representative of the unimproved 
breed in this country and is confined almost en- 
tirely to the more southern states. This breed is a 
long-bodied, long-legg-ed, thin, long--nosed hog, 
exceedingly hardy, and with remarkably good for- 
aging powers, but too slow in maturing and too 
light in weight to compare with the improved 
breeds of swine. It has no place in modern agri- 
culture. 

Breeds to Grow — Under present conditions in 
the United States, farmers will find it most gen- 
erally profitable to grow the larger breeds of hogs, 
since they gain as rapidly as the smaller breeds up 
to the marketable weight of i8o to 250 pounds, 
and. if not marketed at this time will continue to 
grow, while the smaller breeds will reach their 
limit at about this weight. 

Some idea of the popularity of the different 
breeds can be obtained from the number of pure- 
bred animals registered in the different associa- 
tions and which are now alive. In 1905 the figures 
for the Poland-Chinas were 113,000; for Berk- 
shires, 30,000; Duroc-Jerseys, 20,040; Chester 
Whites, 8,400; Yorkshires, 4,600; Essex, 1,300; 



30b FARM STOCK 

Tamworths, 1,200; Cheshires, 1,000; Hampshires, 

500- 

These figures indicate that the Poland-Chinas are 

much in the lead, followed by the Berkshires, the 
Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites. The Poland- 
Chinas are particularly satisfactory to hog grow- 
ers in the corn belt. Outside of this region they 
are no more popular than a number of other breeds. 
In the South, the Berkshires are probably most 
popular and numerous. 

So far as can be learned, there is no special mar- 
ket and no special demand by packers in this coun- 
try for bacon breeds of hogs like the Tamworths 
and Yorkshires. These breeds sell as well on the 
market as any other, but do not bring any higher 
price at present. Owing, however, to the large pro- 
portion of lean to fat in the carcasses of these hogs, 
the pork is superior and these breeds are likely to 
increase in popularity. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
Feeding Hogs 

The first food of the pig is milk. After a short 
time, additional food will be advisable in order to 
secure the most rapid growth. The best gains are 
always secured in the early life of the animal; 
therefore, skimmed milk, kitchen slops and grain 
should be given as soon as young pigs can be in- 
duced to eat. This ought to be continued as long 
as available, even until fattening, if possible. ^lilk 
is naturally a nitrogenous food. It contains a large 
quantity of the muscle-making materials in pro- 
portion to the fat-making materials. As the pig 
grows older, its rations should be widened, until 
the protein in proportion to the food and carbo- 
hydrates is about one to six or seven. Corn is a 
great finishing food and it has a nutritive ratio of 
about one to nine. From this it will be seen that 
there is too much of the fat elements in proportion 
to the muscle elements; consequently even during 
the fattening period, some additional nitrogenous 
food is advisable. Feeding in early life should be 
for the purpose of developing bones, muscles and 
vital organs. This gives a foundation for pro- 
fitable forcing later. 

Many feeding experiments have been made in 
all parts of the country that show that an exclusive 
grain ration made up of corn is never satisfactory. 
Not only are the gains not so good as when mixed 
ration is fed, but the carcass is less desirable be- 
cause of the large amount of fat located in all 
edible parts of the body. 

307 




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FEEDING HOGS 3O9 

Pasture for Pigs — In the early stages of pig 
feeding, milk is very desirable and should be in- 
cluded whenever possible. Where milk is not 
available, slops made of middlings and shorts are 
to be preferred to most other milk products. But 
the great opportunity for making a profit out of 
pigs, especially when prices are low and grain prod- 
ucts are high, is through the use of clover and 
alfalfa pasture crops. As the subject of pig feed- 
ing is studied, more conclusive becomes the evi- 
dence that alfalfa and clover pasturage go hand in 
hand with pork production. 

It should be the swine raiser's aim as much to 
grow these two wonderful forage crops as it is 
to grow the hog itself ; consequently in the great 
alfalfa regions where alfalfa has come into its 
own, it is so greatly appreciated that thousands 
of acres are annually being given over to this crop. 
In the eastern sections of the country, alfalfa is 
less popular and less known because of the difficulty 
in securing a stand and subsequent success with 
the crop. The fault, however, does not lie with 
the alfalfa crop. It is due to the fact that the 
farmer has not yet learned how to grow alfalfa on 
his particular soil in his immediate section and 
under his climatic conditions. Therefore, experi- 
mentation is in order for him so that he may learn 
the essential steps to take to get a successful stand. 

Hogs can be turned into the alfalfa field early 
in the spring, and if the acreage is large in pro- 
portion to the number, they can be continued in 
the alfalfa throughout the season until frost comes 
again. The tramping will not hurt the crop nor 
will the feeding of swine impair the feeding qual- 
ity of the alfalfa when made into hay. AMien the 
hogs are pastured in a large field, a small part of 



310 



FARM STOCK 



the field can be cut, to be followed a week later by 
another part, and so on until the field has been 
cut over. In this way there is a new growth of 
alfalfa on at all times, giving the pigs just the sort 
of pasture they desire. But alfalfa is rich in 
protein, or nitrogenous elements, and hence the 
addition of corn while running on the pasture is 
advisable, especially if early maturity is desired. By 
turning young pigs early on alfalfa, supplying 
them with a daily small feed of corn will bring 
them within six or seven months to weigh 250 
pounds. 

With corn at 50 cents a bushel and hogs at four 
cents per pound, live weight, considerable profit 
is secured where alfalfa, corn and pigs are com- 
bined as a phase of the farm business 

The alfalfa pasture is just the right sort of food 
for brood sows, stock hogs and other store stock. 
During the winter season, alfalfa hay or clover 
hay can be used in the dried stage as furnishing a 
large part of the ration and providing those ele- 
ments essential for growth, thrift and lean meat. 

The abundant supply of wood ashes and salt to 
which hogs may have constant access is an essential 
in hog raising that should never be neglected. 
Ground bone, charcoal, soft coal, are also desirable, 
and their use in hog feeding should not be denied. 
Where ground bone and ashes are constantly at 
hand, pigs mature better, have stronger bones and 
better health. This fact has been brought out by 
frequent tests and is now a part of good swine 
management over every part of the country. 

Cooked and Uncooked Food — Much has been 
said as to the value of cooked feeds, but the fact 
remains that cooking is expensive and in those 
cases where better results have been secured, as 



FEEDING HOGS 3II 

a result of cooking, the cost and expense have been 
greater than the increase would warrant. Conse- 
quently, the greater number of hogs will be raised 
and fattened without having received cooked feeds. 

Whole and Ground Grains — While grinding in- 
creases the value of the common mass of feed, 
such as corn, peas and other grains, it still remains 
a question whether grinding shall be practiced, be- 
cause of the extra expense. In round numbers, 
from 10 to 15 per cent cheaper gains will be made 
from ground food than from unground food. If a 
farmer owns his own grinding mill, he can ordi- 
narily grind his feed at a cost that will be less than 
the extra returns through the use of ground food. 
Hence, it will be to his advantage to feed ground 
corn. If^ however, he is obliged to haul his corn 
some distance to the mill, pay toll for the grinding, 
then return it to his farm, it is a question if the 
extra cost will not more than use up the additional 
returns. It is very likely that, all things consid- 
ered, a great part of the feed will continue to b.e 
used in the unground state. 

Wet or Dry Feed — The facts as to the feeding 
of grain either wet or dry are still conflictmg. 
Many tests have been made, in some cases in favor 
of the wet feed and in others of dry feed. The 
weight of evidence seems, however, to be that it 
is desirable and advantageous to soak grains for 
hogs, but not to cook them. On the average, this 
advantage is from 5 to lo per cent. 

Different Feeds — Among the roughage mate- 
rials may be mentioned alfalfa and clover, first. 
After them come oats and peas, sorghum, cowpeas, 
soy beans and green corn. The growing practice 
of hogging-off corn fields is warranted by the 
facts. Tests show that there are not only as good 



31^ f'ARM STOCiC 

gains made by hogging-off as when fed the corn 
husked or snapped, but there is a saving of the 
labor in cutting and husking the corn. In my 
judgment, a larger and larger area will each year 
be given over to hogs to hog-off. The practice 
extends now from Ohio to Minnesota and the repe- 
tition of the tests, especially by practical farmers, 
warrant the conclusion that this practice has come 
to stay. 

The leading grains used in feeding hogs may be 
mentioned as follows : 

Corn — Of course, this is the cheapest and most 
satisfactory grain to be fed. It is universally used 
for finishing off hogs. As has been pointed out, 
it should not be fed, however, to young and grow- 
ing hogs except in connection with other foods, 
like tankage, middlings, shorts or some other 
nitrogenous feeding stuff. 

Middlings and Shorts are largely used for mix- 
ing with other hog feeds and one or both is com- 
monly employed for the purpose of making swill 
or slops. 

Tankage is growing into favor, not only to be 
used for feeding young and growing hogs, but in 
fattening pigs as well. About one part of tankage 
to eight or ten parts of corn seems to be the right 
proportion to give. Many tests have been made 
and they invariably show not only greater gains 
when tankage is fed in conjunction with corn, 
but that these gains have been made at a far less 
cost than on the exclusive corn diet. 

Almost every kind of grain feed finds favor in 
the hog lot. In the South, peanuts prove satisfac- 
tory when used as a pasture crop, especially when 
sweet potatoes or some more carbonaceous food 
is fed in connection with them. 



FEEDING HOGS 313 

Peas are a very desirable food, but their feed- 
ing value is hardly in keeping with the commercial 
price. 

Cottonseed Meal has been fed to pigs, but with 
poor success. For some unexplained reason, it 
is injurious. While tests have been made showing 
that cottonseed meal may be fed with profit and 
satisfaction, still in the great majority of cases, 
death sooner or later comes; consequently at this 
stage of feeding-knowledge, cottonseed meal is not 
to be recommended as a suitable food for swine. 

Linseed Meal, on the other hand, can be fed with 
impunity and profit. It should be fed, however, 
in connection with other grains. One part of lin- 
seed meal to ten parts of corn makes a very desir- 
able food. 

Wheat, Rye and Barley are all satisfactory hog 
foods, but on account of price, they do not often 
fall into the class of economical hog foods. There 
are so many other foodstuffs unavailable for use 
by man as to throw these grains out of the feeds 
available for hogs. 

All the by-products of the dairy are valuable 
for hogs, such as skimmed milk, buttermilk and 
whey; fed in connection with the grains and al- 
falfa and clover, the greatest profit and ease are 
secured in the feeding and management of this 
class of live stock. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
The Care and Management of Swine 

While the hog- is accustomed to bad treatment, 
he will be a far better money-making help on the 
farm if he receives such attention as is given to 
other farm stock. There is just as much reason 
for tidiness in hog pens as in the houses and barns 
of other live stock. It is not stating the case too 
strongly to say that the many infectious diseases, 
now so fatal to hogs, are in most cases due to un- 
sanitary quarters. Care and attention in this di- 
rection will bring better returns than when applied 
elsewhere. 

The small pens ought to be abandoned as much 
as possible, and where necessary, cement floors be 
provided, or else open pens outside of the barns 
that they may be easily plowed and seeded to some 
cultivated or forage crop. 

The practice of having many small run lots — a 
rod or two up to any width and long enough to 
be tilled by means of horse power — has solved the 
problem very satisfactorily to the health of the 
animal and to the owner, because of the additional 
profit secured by rapid growth and the minimizing 
of labor and expense. 

As to general care, let the hog be provided with 
water, clean quarters and shelter from cold or heat. 
In the management of the hog in general, let good 
pasturage be considered as essential, in conjunc- 
tion with which should be given grain foods that 
maturity may be reached at the earliest possible 
ag-e. Slops and grain food are not enough for 

314 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 



315 



the most economical production of pork. Hogs 
need green food; they need a A-ariety of foods; 
they need fresh water and sanitary quarters, just 
as other stock of the farm. 



WHEN THE SOW HAS PIGS 

When possible, provision should be made during 




THE INTERIOR OF A MODERN HOG BARN 

Iron and cement are now taking the place of mud and 
filth In housing hogs. Everything about this hog barn is 
cleanly and wholesome. If rightly cared for, there is no 
show for disease. 

the summer to give the sow the run of a small grass 
plot or field where she will be free from annoyance 
from other farm stock. In the winter and early 
spring, the barnyard may be used for this purpose, 
when the cows and horses are not at liberty. 

The sow, while nursing, requires liberal feeding, 
as the rearing of a large litter is a severe drain on 
the system. The following foods are especially 
good: skim milk, buttermilk, bran and shorts, 




316 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWlNE 3I7 

ground oats, wheat and barley, with a hberal sup- 
ply of boiled roots and a grass run if possible. 

Teach Little Pigs to Drink — With a little care 
and attention the little pigs can be taught to drink 
a little at from two to three weeks old and thus 
lessen the demand on the dam. The best method is 
to put a shallow, flat-bottomed trough or dish in a 
small inclosure in one corner of the pen, allowing 
the young pigs access to it at will, but wdiere the 
sow cannot reach it. For the first day or two a 
little fresh milk might be used, afterward changing 
to sweet skim milk warmed to blood heat. 

Good sows are often ruined at weaning' time by 
the pigs being suddenly taken away while there is 
still a large flow of milk. This will tend to pro- 
duce inflammation or garget, and a number of blind 
teats may be the result. The plan of removing all 
the pigs with the exception of one or two is also 
objectionable. It is a sudden check to the ones re- 
moved and the remainder will not, as a rule, take 
all the milk, besides running the risk of spoiling 
the sow. 

Feed the sow a spare diet, giving such foods as 
a little dry grain, raw potatoes, etc., which will 
tend to arrest the secretion of milk. 

WEANING PIGS 

The weaning season is more or less critical with 
young swine. In many instances they receive a 
setback at that time, which means loss in growth. 
The manner of the weaning is important, as well 
as the time of the same. \A'hen young pigs have 
learned to take slop freely, made of shorts and skim 
milk, they are being- made ready for weaning with- 
out a serious check to their growth. Such pigs may 
be weaned, if necessary, at the age of eight weeks. 



3lR FARM STOCK 

If they cannot be given skim milk, it is better 
for the pigs if they can remain longer on the dam. 
In such instances, they will fare better if they can 
take nourishment from the dam until ten weeks old. 
In no case should they be weaned until they can 
take food freely apart from the dam. Much care 
should be exercised to furnish them with those 
kinds of food that will promote good growth. 

PIGS FROM WEANING UNTIL FATTENING 

As soon as young pigs are weaned, they must be 
kept entirely away from the dam until she ceases to 
secrete milk, but not necessarily for a long-er period. 
Give them access to a good pasture in the day, and 
meal in addition, morning and evening, until the 
fattening period arrives. The amount of meal fed 
will, to some extent, depend upon the character of 
the pasture, but it should be enough to secure good 
growth. The meal portion of the ration should be 
of a nitrogenous character. When fed. in connec- 
tion with milk, a less quantity can be given and the 
meal can be more of the carbonaceous feed like 
corn. 

Pastures for Store Pigs include rye, blue grass, 
alfalfa, clover, barley and oats, rape and soy beans. 
Winter rye is ready before any other kind of pas- 
ture, and it may be made to last a long time when 
cropped closely. Bluegrass, nearly as early as rye, 
furnishes good pasture, but soon gets too dry and 
woody. Alfalfa, where it grows well, will furnish 
pasture for swine during the greater portion of the 
growing season. Common red clover is ready 
fourth in point of time, and when properly man- 
aged will furnish good pasture much of the season. 
In the absence of clover, barley and oats, or peas 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 



319 



and oats, will furnish a good pasture. The Dwarf 
Essex rape, sown early and eaten off when fairly 
grown, will furnish excellent pasture for store pigs 
from the middle of June until freezing-up season, 
but to accomplish this it must be sown at successive 
periods. Soy beans and cowpeas furnish grazing 
when the grain is nearing maturity and somewhat 
later in the season. 




CHESTER WHITES IN A PORTABLE PEN 

This breed makes good use of pastures, is especially 
popular when dressed and sold in local markets. The port- 
able pen for outside feeding should take the place of the 
stationary, filthy feeding lot. 



Green Foods — In addition to pastures, certain 
green crops may be grown with much advantage 
for store pigs, such as peas, sweet corn, squashes 
and mangels. They are to be fed to supplement 
the pastures and also the meal part of the ration. 
Store pigs will make a substantial growth when 
gleaning among wheat stubbles, for a time at least. 



320 



FARM STOCK 



providing" they have been given access to the stub- 
bles soon after the w^heat has been cut. When thus 
engaged they do not requu*e much additional food. 
If clover has been sown in the spring, no grain will 
be required. 

When store pigs are to be reared in the winter, 
the aim should be to have them farrowed early in 
the season, that they may be considerably advanced 
in growth when the winter sets in. The pens must 
be warm, well lighted and dry, and the pigs should 
be allowed some exercise on fine days. The food 
may be essentially the same as that given in sum- 
mer, except that roots only, or clover, or alfalfa 
can be given in lieu of the green food of summer. 
When practicable, the food should be steamed, 
hence it can be, and should be, fed warm. The pigs 
usually bring a better price when sold before the 
season for grass pasturing. For various reasons 
there is more hazard in rearing autumn than spring 
litters, but with due preparation and due care such 
litters may be profitably reared. 

CARE OF SOW AND PIGS 

Sows should be mated ten months to a year old, 
according to growth. Breeders differ with regard 
to the length of time the boar and sow should be 
together, but I prefer to leave them in each other's 
society about a day. 

The hog house should be of sufficient height to 
clear the sow's back and necessitate short turning. 
If the period of birth occurs in the winter, the house 
cannot be made too warm. If possible, have a yard 
for the sow outside the pen. It will not only give 
her contentment, but exercise, thereby preventing 
the accumulation of flesh, which is a detriment to 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 321 

the coming brood. It also develops bone and 
muscle and imparts to the offspring vigorous con- 
stitutions. Feed at this period witli light, tasty 
food, such as middlings, bran and stale bread. 

Care at the Time of Birth — If the sow's house is 
comfortable this is about the only precaution nec- 
essary. Give just bedding enough to lie upon. It 
is a good plan to chop it up in the fodder cutter. 
The sow is inclined to form her bed for her nest, 
just her own size. The tottering little fellows fall 
under her as she rises. When she again lies down 
they are crushed. The best of mothers are liable 
to do this. i\fter keeping the bed level for two or 




A GOOD HOG TROUGH 

A feeding place like this provides cleanliness, stability; and 
the trough is unbreakable. 

three days, the pigs get strength and this danger 
passes away. 

Food and Care After Birth — Feed moderately 
with tasty food for two or three days, when the 
milk will come in full flow. Then gradually open 
your grain bins and cribs and give her a variety of 
heavy feed, accompanied by milk if possible, watch- 
ing all the time for signs of clogging. At the first 
symptoms restrict the feed. Do not forget to give 
some whole corn, as she will nibble at that at odd 
times. 

Care of Pigs — The pigs will not need much care 
for about a week or ten days. At the end of that 
time they will begin to emerge from the pen. At 
that time place some tasty food, milk and broken 



3^2 FARM STOCK 

crackers at their door, sheltered from dogs and cats, 
and you will be surprised how soon they will sample 
it. In a few days they will come out at your ap- 
proach. By feeding from that time on until selling 
time, you will increase their weight about one-third 
and they will sell all around your neighbors' who 
do not "bother." 

FEEDING SKIM MILK 

The feeding of skim milk to swine is but im- 
perfectly understood by many of those who feed it. 
The following may be said with reference thereto : 
The aim should be to feed the milk as soon as it is 
possible to do so after it has been obtained, as^ es- 
pecially in cold weather, it is a distinct advantage 
to feed it with the animal heat in it. No better 
food can be given to young swine, aside from the 
milk of the dam, while they are yet unweaned. At 
such a time they will turn to good advantage all 
the skim milk that they will consume. 

Subsequently to the growing period they will turn 
to the best advantage not more than, say, four 
pounds of skim milk to one pound of grain, when 
they do not have any grazing. When furnished 
with grazing and grain, not more than three pounds 
would be needed to one pound of grain. Much 
more may be fed, but the relative profit will not 
be so great. Not more than four or five pounds to 
one pound of grain should be fed to swine that are 
being fattened. Brood sows can turn to good ac- 
count large quantities of skim milk, but not to 
such good account as the young swine that nurse 
them. It is correct to say that the younger the 
swine to which the skim milk is fed, the better will 
be the return from feeding it. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 323 

FEEDING BROOD SOWS 

In feeding brood sows, three points should be 
constantly borne in mind : First, to supply the nu- 
trients necessary for the proper nourishment of the 
sow and the litter she is carrying; second, to make 
the ration bulky enough to keep the system open 
and in good condition; and third, 10 make it as 
cheap as possible. During the growing season such 
a ration can be supplied at a minimum expense by 
feeding about two per cent of the sow's weight of 
three parts of corn and one part bran or middlings, 
soy beans or cowpeas ; the remainder of the ration 
being supplied by allowing the sow to run on clover, 
alfalfa or some other leguminous pastures. 

Clover and Alfalfa Desirable — In winter, cut 
clover or alfalfa hay mixed with grain, together 
with a sugar beet or two, or mangels, will make a 
good substitute for the pasture. The sows, as well 
as the boar, should have abundant exercise, and in 
placing the houses in the lot where the pigs are 
confined, care should be taken to have the feeding 
place as far from the sleeping quarters as condi- 
tions will allow, so as to enforce exercise in cold 
weather. 

BROOD SOWS IN WINTER 

The management of brood sows in winter has 
more influence in determining what the swine crop 
for the season will be than any other single influ- 
ence which bears upon the question. When sows 
are wintered properly from start to finish, let the 
season be what it may, the return in progeny is like- 
ly to prove satisfactory. It should not, at least, 



3^4 



FARM STOCK 



prove disappointing. Sows, to produce good lit- 
ters, must have proper food and exercise, and also 
proper shelter during their period of pregnancy. 

A diet all carbonaceous or mainly so is very un- 
suitable for brood sows. Such is corn. Barley is 
not so highly carbonaceous, but it should not be fed 
alone. Such a diet does not properly sustain the 
foetus in uterus. The young pigs when born, if 
born alive, will be small. In some instances they 
will be deficient in hair. The sows are likely to 
be excessively fat if fed liberally, and may also 
have trouble in bringing forth their young. 




HOG HOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR 

This convenient hog house is inexpensive and the feed- 
ing floor at tlie side insures cleanliness and thorougli sani- 
tary conditions. A sanitary hog house should be one of the 
chief improvements of the farm. 



A diet all nitrogenous or mainly so is just as 
unsatisfactory. Blend the two groups and get a 
mixture. Use grasses, clovers, alfalfa and field 
roots Avith the grain. 

Use Home-Grown Feeds — The rations used 
should depend upon the readiness with which they 
may be grown in the locality. The list is a long 
one, and it may be made to include the following: 
Ground corn, barley or rye and wheat bran, fed in 
equal proportions by weight of one of the grains 
and two of the shorts ; equal parts ground oats and 
shorts by weight; any kind of field roots fed so 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 325 

freely as to furnish the bulk of the ration with 
some corn added in the ear, or, in its absence, 
a httle grain of any of the kinds named above; 
potatoes, grain and skim milk; cowpeas and corn 
in the proportions of two and one parts respective- 
ly; and cassava and cowpeas in the proportions of 
three and two parts by weight. 

Well-cured clover hay, if cut early, may be freely 
fed with profit and the same is true of alfalfa. 
These go along with a diet considerably carbona- 
ceous. Sorghum, well grown, may also be used 
similarly, but along with a nitrogenous diet. The 
proper blending of the foods is greatly important 
with brood sows, so unless the diet fed is at least 
approximately correct, the young litters will be 
proportionately disappointing. 

Exercise for Brood Sozvs — The question of ex- 
ercise need not give any serious concern to those 
who live in climates so mild that they can pasture 
more or less during the winter. If they can be 
set to work to dig artichokes or peanuts, so much 
the better for the progeny. They will come strong 
and vigorous. But where brood sows have not the 
opportunity to dig thus for their food, and where 
the winters are of such a character that they cannot 
get to the fields to glean, it is very different. When 
the days are cold they are much inclined to lie in 
their sleeping quarters, and thus take little or no 
exercise. 

This can usually be most readily remedied by al- 
lowing them free access to a barnyard, where they 
will have opportunity to root amid the litter in 
search for stray heads or kernels of grain. Some 
strewn purposely now and then will encourage them 
to take more exercise and the more of this they can 
be made to take the better will be the results. One 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 327 

objection to having been in a barnyard is that they 
may run into apartments where the doors may be 
opened, while the animals within are being cared 
for. In this way they may become a positive 
nuisance, but this matter may be regulated by al- 
lowing them access to the barnyard when other 
work, such as has been referred to, is not going on. 
The fear that they will be injured with other live 
stock need not be felt. In a few instances this 
may happen, but such instances will be rare. 

Shelter for Brood Sows — Whatsoever the char- 
acter of the shelter, it should possess sufficient ven- 
tilation, dryness and warmth to keep the animals 
comfortable. With these requisites it matters not, 
so far as the health of the sows is concerned, how 
these have been secured. Even in cold climates 
they may be secured in an old straw stack which 
stands on dry ground. Brood sows have thus come 
through the winter in good shape in stack bottoms 
built adjacent to the yards. But, of course, when 
the farrowing season draws near, they should have 
quarters that are more accessible, hence, when a 
number of brood sows are kept in winter, there 
should be apartments for them in which they can 
farrow separately, and be kept there with their 
young for a sufficient period. Dampness in winter 
quarters is particularly prejudicial, as it tends to 
produce lung and rheumatic troubles, both of which 
may prove disastrous even in the case of the dams, 
to say nothing of the litters. The necessity, there- 
fore, for attention to keeping the bedding dry is 
imperative. 

Keep Brood Sows Apart — While sows may lie a 
number together for a time, after they become preg- 
nant, this should not be allowed in the advanced 
stages of pregnancy. To allow it may result in 



328 FARM STOCK 

injury to the young and also to the dams. They 
should not be allowed to sleep on concrete or ce- 
ment floors in winter; unless they are overlaid with 
boards, or they may lead to rheumatic affections in 
the sows. Where they cannot have access to barn- 
yards, they must be encouraged to take exercise by 
giving them a part of their food in any open place 
where the ground is dry and bare. Such grain food 
should be thinly strewn. They will then take more 
time in which to gather it. But in really cold and 
stormy weather such exercise should not be in- 
sisted on. 

SELECTING AND CARING FOR STOCK 
BOARS 

The more important considerations in selecting 
a stock boar include lineage, general individual 
qualities, and characteristics as to form. As with 
cattle and sheep, it is essential that the boar be 
purely bred and descended from an ancestry on the 
side of the sire and dam possessed of requisite 
qualities. These qualities include constitutional 
vigor and the ability to give g"ood returns in meat 
for the food fed. His size should be medium to 
large of the breed represented, his bone medium to 
strong and his body of a compact type and smooth, 
and covered with a good coat of strong but not 
coarse hair and possess a clean, smooth skin; and 
he should also have decided masculinity. In ad- 
dition his head should be medium to strong; the 
neck broad and deep, varying in length and depth 
with the breed. He should be evenly wide at the 
shoulders, sides and hams, and deep top and bot- 
tom lines parallel, except that the top line should be 
a little arched in some breeds. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 3:29 

Do Not Select Too Early — The selection of a 
stock boar should not be made at too early a period, 
as modifications in form take place with the gradual 
development of the animal, hence selection, when 
possible, should be deferred until after the weaning 
season. Boars from early spring litters should be 
given the preference, as they can be used to some 
extent in service the same year. The food, until 
ready for service, may consist largely of shorts or 
oats and corn meal, in the proportions of, say, two 
to one part, with green food added. More com- 
plete development can be secured when the boars are 
fed apart or in small lots after they have been se- 
lected for breeding. They should not be allowed to 
remain with the 50 ws beyond the age of four or five 
months. 

Amoimt of Service — A boar should not be used 
in service until eight or nine months old. Until 
one year old he should only be used to a limited 
extent. Soon after one year old he should be used 
with much freedom in service, but, if possible, not 
more frequenth^ than every other day. The dura- 
tion of service will depend, to some extent, upon 
the disposition of the animal, upon the extent to 
which he has been used in service, and upon his 
prepotency. Vicious animals and indifferent brood- 
ers cannot go too soon to the block, while superior 
breeding animals may l)e kept as long as they are 
markedly useful. It is not usual to keep boars be- 
yond the age of five years. But remember that ex- 
cessive service always leads to physical degeneracy, 
small animals and lack of vigor in the young pigs. 

Isolation and Exercise — It should be the aim to 
keep the boar in quarters quite away from sows, 
but this may not be practicable, especially in winter. 



330 



FARM STOCK 



It is advisable, however, to have the fence sur- 
rounding his yard close rather than open and both 
summer and winter he should be encouraged to take 
exercise. 

Summer Management — The meal portion of the 
ration may include shorts and corn meal or ground 
barley or ground peas in the proportions of two and 
one parts respectively; wheat bran, shorts and corn 
meal or barley, equal parts ; ground oats and ground 
corn or ground barley or ground peas, in the pro- 
portions of one and two parts respectively. Green 
food may be added, such as bluegrass, alfalfa, 




HOG HOUSE FOR A SINGLE INDIVmUAL 

The corn stover set about the wooden house gives good 
protection in cold weather. 



clover, green peas, rape, sweet corn, squashes, 
pumpkins and weeds from the garden. 

Winter Management — During this season the 
boar should be given warm quarters with frequent 
changes of litter, access to yard, and where practi- 
cable, access to a barnyard, during a part of the 
day. The food may be substantially the same as in 
the summer, as far as the meal factors are con- 
cerned, taking care to use more relatively of the 
carbonaceous foods. Green food may be and 
should be applied in the form of field roots. 

Disposing of the Aged Boar — When not wanted 
longer for service the boar should be castrated, 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 33 1 

preferably in the spring of the year. He may then 
be allowed to run through the summer on pasture 
and other food. When fattened and slaughtered in 
the autumn, he may be turned into lard and sold 
as such, if so desired. 

PASTURE CHEAP FEED FOR SWINE 

It would be correct to say that in no other way 
can a pound of pork be made so cheaply as when 
it is made on pasture. x\s a rule, however, other 
food more concentrated should be fed while the 
swine are on pasture, to supplement the same. The 
amount of supplemental food will depend upon the 
nature of the gTazing. 

The most valuable grazing is that which is legu- 
minous in character, as clover in any of its varie- 
ties, alfalfa and peanuts. Other grazing, however, 
may be ver}^ excellent that is not leguminous. 
Such is Dwarf Essex rape and some other plants. 

In the northern states the following plants may 
be used to provide grazing for swine : Winter rye, 
barley, alfalfa, clover in nearly all its varieties, 
vetches, rape and artichokes. The grains that may 
be harvested by the swine when mature include 
rye, bald barley, corn and the Canada field pea. 

In the eastern states the same foods may be 
grown as in those north. The Canada pea may 
not grow so satisfactorily, but the crimson clover 
could be added to the list, also certain varieties of 
cowpeas and soy beans. The sand vetch would 
also furnish pasturage. 

In the southern states the list of pastures would 
include: Winter rye, winter oats and winter bar- 
ley, the common vetch and the sand vetch. All of 
these would be sown in the fall. In the line of 




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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 333 

Other grazing-, the Hst would include crimson 
clover, Japan clover, burr clover and Bermuda 
grass. In the line of roots it would include arti- 
chokes, sweet potatoes and peanuts. The two lat- 
ter, however, would only be used thus when of 
coarse-growing varieties, as when, for instance, 
they were too coarse for market uses. Cowpeas 
and soy beans would also furnish good grazing. 

In the western states, especially in the mountain 
states, alfalfa will be the outstanding swine pas- 
ture. This does not mean, however, that many 
other pastures, as winter rye, bald barley and Can- 
ada field peas, will not be used. In the states just 
west of the Mississippi, sorghum is frequently 
grown for swine pasttu'e. 

Since pasture is so easily grown for swine, and 
since the list of plants suitable is so large, it should 
be easily possible to provide pasture for swine in 
any part of the United States in which swine are 
kept. 

ALFALFA HAY FOR HOGS 

Can alfalfa hay be substituted for corn during 
winter feeding? It can. In the alfalfa sections, 
both green and dry alfalfa enter very largely into 
the maintenance and fattening rations of hogs. It 
is not uncommon to winter hogs on alfalfa alone. 

The objection to this practice lies in the fact 
that alfalfa is too valuable to be used without 
other feed going with it. Alfalfa, you know, is 
rich in the proteids. It runs to one extreme just 
as corn runs to the other. It is the mixture of 
the two, of proteids and carbohydrates, that makes 
the ideal ration for any class of live stock. When 
alfalfa enters into the pork production, let this 
plan be followed: 



334 



FARM STOCK 



Beginning with the Shotes — In early spring let 
the shotes, stock hogs and brood sows run in the 
alfalfa field. This will carry them for several 
months. Many feeders like to give, even while on 
alfalfa pasturage, some corn also. As the feeding 
period advances, and the shotes reach maturity and 
approach the fattening period, increase the amount 
of corn constantly until you take the hogs from the 
pasture altogether, at the same time giving corn 
almost wholly. 

If pen fed, a little alfalfa hay will not be out of 
place. Alfalfa meal is often substituted for alfalfa 
hay in the feed pen, but from the standpoint of 
price, alfalfa meal is out of reach. Tankage, one 
part being used to ten of corn, makes quite an ideal 
addition to the usual finishing food. The last two 
or three weeks of feeding, corn may be used alone. 

In feeding during the winter time, if you have 
plenty of alfalfa, give the hogs free use of alfalfa 
hay, cut or uncut, as the case may be, and a little 
less of corn than your usual custom. When alfalfa 
hay is used, of course other feeds, like middlings 
and shorts, need not be used. 

Pasturing Cattle on Alfalfa — What is said here 
about hogs, in the most part, is true of cattle, with 
this exception : The greatest caution must be used 
in pasturing-, especially in the spring. I know many 
cattle raisers who pasture cattle on alfalfa, but they 
make it a point always to have bluegrass and tim- 
othy available, and old stocks of hay scattered 
throughout the field, or old hay fed from racks or 
the load. 

Alfalfa is a coming crop for the older middle 
states. In the future it will enter more largely into 
the production of pork, beef and dairy products 
than any other forage crop, corn excepted. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 335 

HOGGING OFF CORN 

Some hold the idea that hogging off corn is a 
shiftless way of farming. This is based neither 
on facts nor good judgment. As a method of 
economical feeding, the practice of hogging off 
corn has been growing in favor during the past 
few years, and seems to be a practicable and 
economical way of feeding hogs several weeks 
during the fall. 

A two years' investigation into this subject was 
made at the Minnesota station. Comparisons were 
made with other methods of feeding corn and let- 
ters of inquiry were sent to many farmers who 
had experimented with this plan. As a result, the 
station is strong in its recommendation of this 
plan, viewed from an economical standpoint 
brought about by the reduced bill for labor. High 
prices for labor, together with low prices for corn, 
warrant economy in labor, even though it may 
lead to a slight waste of corn. 

What the Experiment Shozvs — The following 
conclusions were arrived at after a thorough inves- 
tigation of this interesting subject: 

Pork was produced with less grain by hogging 
off corn than by feeding ear or snapped corn in 
yards. Hogs fed in fields gained nearly one-third 
more rapidly than those fed in yards. The cost of 
fencing corn fields may be from $1.00 to $2.50 less 
per acre than the cost of husking corn. It requires 
no more labor to prepare for subsequent crops, 
fields that have been hogged off than those that 
have been treated by the ordinary methods of har- 
vesting. Hogs waste no more corn in fields than 
when fed in yards. They pick the corn as clean 
as most men do in husking. Labor in caring for 



33^ FARM STOCK 

hogs is not increased by hogging off corn, Ijut may 
be decreased, if systematic methods are employed. 

How to Obtain Best Results — The variety of 
corn usually grown in a locality is the proper kind 
to grow for hogging off purposes, since it is prob- 
ably best adapted to the locality and gives the 
largest yield. However, getting an early start in 
the fattening process is very advantageous, and it 
sometimes happens when pasture supplies are 
short, or the early sale of hogs is desirable, that 
such a variety does not mature early enough. 

To be prepared for such conditions, it is well 
to grow a sufficient amount of sweet corn or early 
maturing flint corn to tide over until the field 
corn is ready for use. No more than is sufficient 
for early fall seeding should be grown, since it 
costs just as much to grow these varieties as it 
does the dent, and they yield much less. Flint 
corn is preferable to sweet corn for hogs, and 
field feeding of flint corn gives better results than 
where husked and fed after tlie corn has hardened. 

Si^e of Pigs to Use — Pigs weighing from lOO 
to 140 pounds are best suited for field feeding, 
since they have at that weight formed a good 
amount of bone and muscle for framework, and 
are in a condition to fatten rather than to grow. 
Those that have been grown on pasture are better 
fitted for the work than those that have been con- 
fined in pens, as they are more active, and have had 
more experience in gathering food for themselves. 
They, therefore, eat corn more readily and require 
less amounts of expensive mill feed. Shotes of 
this weight may be expected to gain at the start 
about 1.4 pounds daily. In 60 to 70 days of feed- 
ing they should gain approximately 92 pounds. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 337 

Old brood sows that are thin in flesh fatten up 
very quickly when turned into a field. A few 
weeks on early varieties of corn will usually permit 
such sows to be marketed early, or before it would 
be possible following the common method of 
feeding. 

Much Water Needed — While eating corn in the 
held, hogs require a great deal of clear water. 
They grow and thrive better when they have it, 
and some means of supplying- it to them fresh 
and in large quantities must be provided. When 
in the field, hogs do not come up and drink in 
droves, as the}^ do in the yards. Therefore, it is 
necessary to keep water before them continually. 

When fields adjacent to the farmstead are used, 
hogs can be brought up to the yards and watered 
or fed slop as usual. \Miere fields remote from 
the farmstead are used, the simplest way is to fill 
several barrels or casks with water, and haul them 
by team on a stoneboat or other conveyance to 
the field. Enough can thus be taken out at a time 
to last two or three days. 

When a plentiful water supply is assured, slop- 
ping does not require such careful attention. 
Many feeders do not slop at all, but better results 
are undoubtedly obtained by supplying some sort 
of bone and muscle-producing feed to pigs weigh- 
ing under 140 pounds. Old hogs do not need it, 
but young ones do. In the early fall, when on a 
rape or clover crop, or when green feeds of any 
sort are plentiful, once a day is all that is neces- 
sar}^ to slop the hogs, but as the season advances, 
they should be slopped at least twice a day. 

Shorts, middlings, or oilcake and shorts com- 
bined are good growing foods, and hence are good 
material for slops. Experiments have not yet 



338 FARM STOCK 

been carried on to determine the extent to which 
slops should be used, but careful observation and 
experience warrant the above remarks. 

Even though it may be safe to turn hogs into 
the corn fields early, it might not be wise, for a 
smaller amount of feed is obtained when the corn 
is not allowed to ripen first, and the pigs are likely 
to tear it all down before it matures. When to 
turn in, will, therefore, depend upon the amount 
of available pasture and the nature of the pigs as 
well as upon the development of the corn. It is 
safe to begin hogging off the field corn about the 
time it is dented. 

PASTURE FOR HOGS 

It is probable that in no way can pork be made 
more cheaply than with grain on pasture, provided 
the grain and pasture are of the right kind. Ex- 
periments at a number of different stations have 
shown that it requires one-fifth to one-third less 
grain to produce 100 pounds of pork with pasture 
than without it. While this is no doubt true, care 
should be taken not to overdo the matter of pas- 
ture, especially with young pigs. Young pigs need 
more protein than older ones, because they are 
growing, rather than fattening. 

In consequence, the young pig should receive for 
somie time after being weaned, a ration equivalent 
to two parts of corn meal and one of middlings, 
with perhaps little tankage aside from access to 
good clover, alfalfa, oats and peas, or cowpea pas- 
ture, from which he will get considerable protein. 
On this sort of pasture, as the pigs grow larger, 
the proportion of corn may be increased until they 
have attained the weight of about 100 pounds, when 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 339 

corn alone may be economically fed, unless, per- 
chance, corn may be high and protein feed propor- 
tionately low in price. Under usual conditions, 
however, the nitrogenous feeds are so high that, 
although their use undoubtedly would make more 
rapid gains, they are obtained at such an increased 
cost as to render their use unadvisable. 

Work for Steady Grozvth — Pigs should be so 
fed that they will gain a half-pound a day from the 
time they are three weeks old until they are mar- 
keted. It is impossible to make anything like this 
gain on pasture alone, but, on the other hand, it is 
possible to feed more grain than is necessary to 
make the maximum gains. It seems, too, that in 
order to get the best results from the pasture, it is 
essential that the pigs be allowed to graze rather 
than to have the green feed cut and brought to 
them. Whole grain feed on pasture should be 
ground or soaked, with the possible exception of 
corn, which may be fed on the cob or shelled. It 
will pay, however, to soak old corn before it is fed, 
as soaking is equivalent to grinding and is much 
cheaper. 

It requires considerable skill and forethought to 
arrange to have desirable pasture available during 
the greater part of the growing season. Assuming 
that the land devoted to pig pasture is fairly fertile, 
the following plan will probably yield satisfactory 
results under average Pennsylvania and other east- 
ern conditions where alfalfa is not as 3^et a certain 
crop. 

Some Good Pastures — The earliest pasture that 
can be had is rye, and although its food value may 
not be great, it will serve to tone up the system and 
induce better appetite and faster growth. Hairy 




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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 34I 

vetch, red clover, alfalfa, oats and peas, rape, sor- 
ghum, soy beans and cov^peas may follow each 
other. Climate, soil and other conditions will prob- 
ably serve to exclude some of these crops. It is 
quite certain, however, that from this list a rotation 
may be had that will give anywhere a succession of 
suitable pasture for hogs. The great advantage in 
supplying such a course of pasture is that many of 
them supply, in a very cheap manner, protein which 
is needed for rapid and economical gains. 

THE POPULAR TYPE OF HOGS 

The popular demand at the present time is for a 
clavSs of hogs that are prolific. It does not cost 
any more to winter sows that farrow ten pigs at 
a litter than it does those that farrow about four 
or five. Early maturing hogs are demanded, for 
it does not pay to keep pigs more than eight or 
nine months of age to reach the popular weight, 
which is from 200 to 250 pounds each. Pigs kept 
growing right along- from time of birth to that age 
make pork cheaper than they will if kept longer, 
and it will be of better quality than if the hogs 
are fed slowly at first and then fattened up for the 
market, as was the custom in times past. 

Lean Meat Demanded — Another point is the fact 
that people demand bacon and hams that have a 
large percentage of lean meat. The muscles that 
make the lean meat are formed largely during 
the time that the pigs are growing. Therefore, it 
is essential that pigs be well fed while growing, 
and at the same time be given an opportunity for 
exercise to develop muscle. 

The waste points, like the long nose and long 
legs, should be eliminated from the hogs in order to 



342 FARM STOCK 

get the most desirable meat possible in the carcass. 
It seems to be the impression that the bacon hogs 
must, of necessity, have long, sharp noses in order 
to get the bacon sides. The impression is an er- 
roneous one. By selection and following the proper 
variations a type of hogs with short faces and legs 
and deep sides can be developed. This same class 
also carry good hams, which add to the value of the 
carcass. It is certainly worth while to give more 
attention to the type of hog that will be most profit- 
able to keep on the farm than was given a genera- 
tion ago. 

FEEDING HOGS FOR PROFIT 

Raising hogs for profit is one thing and letting 
them grow on the farm and make what they will is 
another. If we expect to profit from our hogs we 
must give them care and attention. They need 
comfortable quarters in winter, protection from the 
sun in summer, clean pens at all seasons, regular 
feeding, a clean place to eat, food properly pre- 
pared and some space in which to root, with no 
rings in their noses. Death comes to many hogs 
because we deprive them of that inborn desire to 
root, to find their medicine and restore themselves 
to health when sick. The hog knows why he roots, 
but we do not. Careful experiments have shown 
that each bushel of corn fed hogs will produce on 
the average about ten pounds of pork. When 
ready to fatten divide your hogs into lots of 20 or 
25 each. Too many hogs together will certainly 
invite contagion. Keep your hogs at all seasons in 
good growing condition, and never allow more than 
60 days to have your hogs round and plump and 
ready for the highest market. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 343 

To Fatten Is Not Difficult — There is no trouble 
in putting fat on a well-kept hog. When ready t6 
fatten hitch the horses to the feed grinder and 
crush and grind 50 bushels of corn, cob and all, 
into coarse meal. Put this corn and cob meal in a 
dry place, in barrels or boxes. Then fill three or 
four extra barrels about half full of this corn and 
cob meal. Pour boiling water into these barrels 
until they are about three-fourths full; this water 
may include milk and other slops from the kitchen. 
Now stir this mixture and let it stand two or three 
clays till it begins to ferment. This process will 
soon fill the barrels to overflowing. Feeding now 
begins sparingly at first till the hogs get used to it, 
then give them all they will eat three times a day. 
This preparation of soft mush makes an excellent 
laxative diet, allays the tendency to a feverish con- 
dition of the hog's bowels, hastens digestion, gives 
the hog a good appetite, promotes health and puts 
on fat and flesh with exceeding rapidity. 

Pasture as Long as Possible — Let your fatters 
run on grass until the snow falls, then house them 
and bed with sweet clover hay. It is often neces- 
sary to renew the bed every two or three days, as 
the hogs eat the bed when they can't get grass from 
the pasture. They are very fond of sweet clover 
hay. There is no waste of hay, for clover is a 
muscle producer and promotes the health of the 
hogs. The soft mush produced by scalding the 
corn and cob meal should be fed in long troughs 
on a regular feeding floor, so as to keep the food 
clean. This is very important. Keep a trough 
in one corner of the feeding floor filled with char- 
coal and salt for the hogs to eat just when they 
want it. This is a fine preventive of cholera and 
purges the bowels of impurities. In 60 days from 



344 FARM STOCK 

the time of beginning this special feeding your hogs 
are ready to sell. About eight bushels corn for 
each hog will be required; and each hog will gain 
on an average i6o pounds in the 60 days. Now 
let us count the profit: 50 hogs gained 8000 
pounds, at 5 cents per pound, is $400; 400 bushels 
corn, 45 cents per bushel, is $180, leaving a net 
gain of $220. To these figures add 7000 pounds, 
the weight before fattening and you have the total 
valuation. 



CHAPTER XXV 

The Diseases of Swine 

The hog is such a small and unimportant animal 
when considered singly that to treat him when he 
is slightly indisposed is scarcely to be thought of. 
It is wdien certain diseases that are contagious 
play damage to the entire herd or spread through- 
out the community that treatment is sought. With 



.^ji 






THEY ARE DOING THEIR OWN DIPPING 

A simple contrivance for hog disinfectants. You can make 
it yourself and your hogs will like it. 

a few possible exceptions, the hog is not afflicted in 
any great way by infectious or contagious diseases. 
Naturally the short time that he dwells on the farm 
removes some of the difficulties in this way. 

The chief cause of whatever diseases do bother 
him is filth and unsanitary conditions under which 
he is placed. The most undesirable quarters about 

345 



346 FARM STOCK 

the farm are given the hog. Who does not recall in 
his community some small pen where one or more 
hogs are quartered for weeks or months with 
scarcely ever any additional bedding and constant 
exposure to all kinds of weather? The pen soon 
becomes a mud hole, requiring the inmate to both 
eat and sleep in filth. 

Now the hog is not naturally filthy or uncleanly. 
He likes to lie in water and moist places, but he 
prefers these to be cleanly and healthy. No farm 
animal is more careful in seeking cleanly quarters 
if left to himself. 

CORRECTIVES FOR SWINE 

Under some conditions swine show a decided 
craving for such substances as charcoal, charred 
corn cobs, soft coal, wood ashes, soft sandstone, soft 
brick, bits of mortar, rotten wood and soapsuds, 
also earth. Such a craving, when markedly present, 
is evidence that the swine are not getting in the 
food all the elements that they need. In order to 
meet this need, it is recommended that some, at 
least, of these substances shall be given to them ar- 
tificially. Those most commonly recommended are 
charcoal, charred corn cobs and wood ashes. These 
are put in self-feeders and are made accessible to 
the swine. 

The following was a favorite of Theodore 
Low's, now gone to his rest : Six bushels charred 
corn cobs, three bushels charcoal, three bushels 
wood ashes, eight pounds salt and i>^ pounds cop- 
peras. The charcoal was broken and all the other 
ingredients added and mixed by shoveling them 
over. The copperas was then dissolved in hot 
water and sprinkled over the mass, which was then 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 



347 



shoveled over again. The old man used this for- 
mula during nearly all his years of farming. 

Some authorities recommend that all swine be 
given access to some such preparation. This I 
cannot endorse in its entirety. My contention is 
that when swine are largely developed on pastures 
mixed in character, and especially when not much 
corn is fed, they will not need such correctives. 




AN ATTACK OF CHOLERA 

One of the familiar attitudes assumed when the hog 
is affected with cholera. When this far along, not many 
cases of recovery are observed. 

Where bacon is grown in food form these correct- 
ives are but little in evidence. The reason is that 
the food that produces good bacon will also main- 
tain that condition of health in which the craving 
referred to will be but little present. 



IMPORTANT DISEASES LARGELY 
INFECTIOUS 

Hog Cholera — The farmer is, therefore, con- 
cerned more with the infectious diseases which 
are also the important ones that attack the hog. 



34^ FARM STOCK 

Chief among these is hog cholera. No disease is 
known that destroys more animals than hog 
cholera. So far the prevention and curing of the 
disease have baffled all scientific attempts, although 
at the present time a method of inoculation has 
been perfected by the United States Department of 
Agriculture. The preliminary demonstrations of 
this test have been very favorable and may lead to 
far-reaching results. In brief, this remedy is an 
inoculating fluid secured from the horse after in- 
oculation with hog--cholera germs. Of course, hogs 
that have hog cholera already in their system could 
not be expected to be helped very materially by this 
treatment. The discoverers mean to use the prepa- 
ration for healthy hogs as a means of prevention 
when once the disease breaks out in the community 
or state. 

The hog-cholera bacillus locates in the intestines, 
giving rise to this infectious as well as malignant 
disease. Among the first things noted are loss of 
appetite, high fever, a discharge from the eyes and 
a spotted discoloration of the skin. At first con- 
stipation is noted, followed very quickly by profuse 
diarrhoea, which persists until the animal is dead. 
Hogs afifected with hog cholera are dull and seek 
quietness in some corner of the pen or yard. The 
mortality is very great, being from 80 to 90 per 
cent. When of any acute nature, two or three days 
are all that are required to bring death to the in- 
dividual. 

Prevention the Best Cure — In some sections 
some farmers are constantly afflicted with this dis- 
ease in their herds, while others seemingly are free 
of it. Since it is a germ disease, it is readily car- 
ried from one farm to another by dogs, birds, or on 
the shoes of people. It is quite essential, therefore, 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 



349 



that there should be no interchange between farms 
when hog cholera is prevalent. The most careful 
sanitation is necessary also. The sleeping quarters 
should be frequently sprayed 
with disinfectants and lime 
scattered all about that the 
germ may have little or no 
chance of gaining headway 
if it were to secure lodging. 

To keep hogs healthy, 
vigorous and fast growing, 
good food of the right kind, 
nutritious and wholesome, 
will do much; it will aid in 
building up the system so as 
to withstand infection. Con- 
sequently on farms where an 
abundance of pasturage like 
alfalfa and clover are to be 
found, fewer cases of hog 
cholera will result. 

Hogs that are fed largely 
on corn seem to be the first 
ones attacked. The lack of 
protein and mineral material 
in their food keeps the sys- 
tem in a- run-down condition 
and the animal is not so able 
to resist disease. 

If the disease once breaks 
out in your herd, the first the result of hog 
thing to do is to separate the cholera 

sick hogs from the well a post-mortem of a hog dy- 

Vino-G o-Urf^ KnfVi Vinrlc i^f-^nr "^S from cholera will show 
^OgS, give DOtn KUias new ulcers llke those pictured here. 

quarters at once and make J^oo^ to them in the large in- 




350 FARM STOCK 

their separation as complete as possible. Divide the 
well hogs into as many groups as possible, so that 
3^our entire herd may not be affected. Be careful 
in feeding that the same attendant does not go from 
the sick hogs to the well hogs. It is so easy to carry 
the germs from one place to the other that it is 
reasonably certain that in this way the disease will 
be transmitted. 

If the disease has broken out in your herd and 
a large part of your animals die, let those that sur- 
vive be kept for breeding purposes rather than be 
sold. You are reasonably sure that these are im- 
mune to the disease and will be more likely to 
withstand future attacks. In this way you have 
some good brood sows and service boars that you 
can reasonably well count on should another at- 
tack occur. You thus are not confronted with the 
risk of losing your entire herd. 

Szvinc Plague is closely allied to hog cholera and 
is usually confused with it, but the two are not one 
and the same disease. In swine plague the lungs 
are found to be in a heavy and congested condition, 
much as is the case when attacked with pneumonia. 

In hog cholera, the seat is in the intestines, but in 
swine plague the seat is in the lungs, so in the latter 
disease, some pulmonary trouble is nearly always 
the direct cause of death. The swine plague in- 
fection takes place through the air passages, while 
in hog cholera infection occurs through the water 
or food. 

Tuberculosis — This is a disease of swine just as 
it is of cattle or sheep or man. There is a larger 
percentage of tuberculosis among hogs than is gen- 
erally supposed. Its cause is by direct infection 
and by the use of milk from tuberculous cows. Of 
course, no method of treatment is advisable, even 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 35 1 

if possible. The hog is worth too little money to 
receive much treatment for so important a disease 
as tuberculosis. The best way to do if tuberculosis 
has gained a foothold in your herd is to slaughter 
your animals and start over again by getting new 
stock entirely free of the disease*. All feeding and 
running lots should be destroyed for both tubercu- 
losis and hog cholera and the ground plowed and 
put to some crop that the germ may be entirely 
killed and eradicated. If the fences are of a painted 
nature, see that they are covered with whitewash 
and all litter of every nature is destroyed. 




ONE OF THE PARASITES OF THE HOG 

The thorn-headed worm attached to the anterior part 
of the small Intestine often causes death. Not more than 
five or six are usually foimd in a single animal. 

Trichinosis — This disease is caused by a minute 
worm that lodges in the flesh of the animal. So 
great and troublesome is this disease that fresh pork 
is not considered safe in some parts of the world. 
Man becomes affected with this disease by eating 
raw or undercooked pork. The trichinge are killed 
either by cooking or by the usual process of salt 
pickled and cured pork products. Hogs usually get 
the disease by eating offal and rats that fre- 
quent slaughter houses. Where hogs are given 






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THE DISEASES OF SWINE 353 

wholesome quarters out on the farm, free from 
this filth and unwholesome food, it is quite unlikely 
that they will be afflicted in this wa}'. 

Worms — Young- pigs are often afflicted with 
worms. Of course, infected quarters are back of 
the trouble. When kept on land or lots annually 
plowed and cultivated and for the most part kept 
on pastures, worms do not often trouble hogs. 
Worms may be expelled from infected hogs by giv- 
ing turpentine in doses of one teaspoonful in milk. 
Repeat this dose daily for three or four days. 

Mange — A parasitic mite is the cause of this com- 
mon disease. This little fellow appears first near 
the eyes and ears and on the inside of the fore- 
legs. Later on it spreads over the entire body. 
Scabs are formed by this mite and are white and 
dry in nature. The hair falls off in patches. In- 
fected animals should be isolated and the skin 
washed with soft soap, after which apply a mix- 
ture containing one pound of white arsenic and 12 
pounds of alum in 2^ gallons of water. This will 
be sufficient, but the pig pens or other quarters 
should be sprayed and disinfected. 

Lice — The lice have been known to produce death 
in hogs by worrying the life out of them and bring- 
ing them into a very unthrifty condition. Lice bite 
the skin and suck blood and thus produce much irri- 
tation. They come from filthy quarters. A good 
remedy is to pour kerosene over the back and 
shoulders. Fitting up a rubbing post smeared with 
kerosene is a good way. The hogs soon find this 
post, work up to it and do the rubbing themselves. 

Thumps — This is known as spasms of the dia- 
phragm and is rather common in pigs. Overfeed- 
ing or some other digestive trouble is back of this 
disease. The irregular, jerking movement of the 








4 





354 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 355 

flanks indicate what the trouble is. Some cathartic 
hke raw linseed oil, together with a dose of about 
ten drops of tincture of opium, is a satisfactory 
kind of treatment. To turn pigs out on pasture 
will usually bring about desired results. 

WHERE IMPROVEMENT IS NEEDED 

From this discussion, it will be noticed that most 
of the important diseases attacking swine are due 
to filth and unsanitary quarters. Good farming 
calls for as close attention to be paid to the living 
needs of hogs as of other animals of the farm. 
Give them frequent change of quarters. Let their 
lots be annually turned over to some crop. Let 
them be given good, wholesome food and pure, 
clean water. Give them the right sort of bedding 
and housing and treat them with the consideration 
that their importance merits, and the troubles and 
ills of the hog will be reduced to a minimum. 
While an important money-maker, he will, with 
better treatment, respond with greater enthusiasm 
and more profit to his keeper. 



Index 



Page 

Aberdeen Angus 121 

Alfalfa for dairy cows 163 

Ayrshire 133 

Baby beef 194 

Balanced ration 29 

Beef cattle in autumn 200 

Beef making 189 

Belgitun draft 58 

Berkshire 292 

Boars, selecting and caring for. . 328 

Breeding, co-operative 145 

Farm stock 7 

How selection is worked in. . . . 10 

Terms 15 

Where selection comes in 10 

Breeds of swine 292 

Brown Swiss 129 

Burro 103 

Burying food in the ground 41 

Calves, amount of milk for 221 

Care after weaning 222 

Rearing on skim-milk 216 

Carbohydrates defined 23 

Cattle 113 

Breeds of 116 

Care and management of 215 

Concentrartes to use for 226 

Diseases of 228 

Fattening in late fall 211 

Fed inferior corn 202 

Feeding, shock corn 212 

Finishing, on meal 213 

High finish essential 214 

Learn to judge 191 

Some coramon diseases of. . . . 228 

Supplying plenty of water. ... 223 

What grain to give 223 

Wintering young 222 

Cheese-making at home 161 

Cheshire 301 

Chester White 297 

Cheviot 251 

aeveland Bay 52 

Clydesdale 55 

Colt, breaking of 81 

Cow feeding 165 

Cross-breeding 15 

Dairy calf, feeding of 217 

Dairy cows, feeding of 148 

Feeding in wdnter 167 

Protecting, from flies 153 

Dairj^ farming 142 

Dairy herd, building of 144 

Dairying, a balance in fertility. . 171 

Business of 18 

Dairyman, what he should be. . . 179 

Delaine Merino 242 

Devon 126 



Page 

Diseases of horses 87 

Recognizing and distinguishing 87 

Dorset 249 

Draft horse, conformation of. . . . 66 

Draft type 54 

Duroc Jersey 295 

Dutch Belted 139 

Essex 305 

Ewes, best feeds for 267 

Breeding in winter 267 

Feeding pregnant 269 

Food for 264 

Necessary exercise for 266 

Plenty of water for 269 

Succulent food for 270 

Suitable shelter for 265 

Farm horse, winter care of 82 

Fat defined in feed 24 

Feeds, each section 37 

Easy to swap 37 

Use of judgment in purchasing 39 

Value of each 33 

Feeding of animals 19 

Principles of 19 

Feeding standards 25 

Feeding stuffs, great variation. . . 31 

Feeding, supplj-mg what is needed 35 

Feeding the horse 68 

French coach horse 51 

French draft 58 

Galloway . . . . , 123 

German coach horse SI 

Grade sire 13 

Grades of sheep 241 

Guernsey 131 

Hackney 51 

Hampshire 301 

Heavy horses 61 

Herds, how to start 12 

Hereford 119 

Hinnies 107 

Hogs, alfalfa hay for 333 

Different feeds for 311 

Feeding 307 

Feeding for profit 342 

Pasture for 338 

Popular type of 341 

Hogging-off corn 335 

Holstein 137 

Horses 43 

Best treatment of 96 

Breeding of 60 

Breeds of 46 

Care and management of 78 

Roughage feed for 69 

Some common diseases of . . . . 89 

Watering 75 

Inbreeding 15 



357 



FEB 



190S 



358 



INDEX 



Page 

Jacks, kinds of 101 

Selection of 99 

Jersey 129 

Lambs, taken from mothers. . . . 263 

Weaning of 262 

Leicester 251 

Lincoln 252 

Live stock, when it pays 12 

Mare and foal 85 

Market milk 151 

Handling the herd 151 

Merino 241 

Milk 158 

Care of, on farm 158 

Classified for market 156 

Feeding in good condition ... 219 

Keeping up flow of 161 

Separator milk best 220 

Morgan horse 49 

Mules 98 

Feeding of 110 

Market class of 109 

Mule industry 104 

Nutritive ratio 25 

Ohio Chester White 298 

Oxford 249 

Percheron 56 

Pigs 310 

Cooked and unc()()ivc<l foods for 310 

Feeding skim-milk to 322 

Pasture for 309 

Weaning of 317 

Weaning to fattening 318 

Whole and ground grains for. . 311 

Poland China 292 

Polled Durham 127 

Prepotencv 15 

Rambouillet 243 

Rams in summer. ..., 271 

Ration, making the 31 

Razor-Back 305 

Red polled 126 

Saddle gaits 49 

Saddle horse 49 

Scrubs, get rid of 12 



Page 

Sheep 238 

Care and management of 260 

Choosing feeds for 258 

Diseases of 283 

Feed sufficient grains 257 

Feeding 254 

For wool alone 275 

Lambing season 264 

Roots always fine for 255 

Shear early 272 

Shearing 277 

Washing 279 

Shire Horse 55 

Shorthorns 116 

Shropshire 247 

Southdowns 245 

Sow and pigs, care of 320 

Sows, brood, in winter 323 

Feeding brood 323 

Stallions, management of 80 

Steers, fattening in summer 198 

Finishing in spring 197 

Suffolk 248, 309 

Swine 289 

Care and Tuanagement of 314 

Correctives for 346 

Diseases largely infectious. . . . 347 

Feeding after cattle 202 

Filling orders by mail for. . . . 290 

Pasture feed cheap for 331 

Tamworth 300 

Teams preparing for work 86 

Thoroughbred 46 

Influence of 53 

Trotter. 48 

Tuberculosis in cattle 228 

Water in feed 22 

Wool, classification of 281 

Wool, clean 279 

Wool, quality of 273 

Wool, storing of 274 

Wool tying 280 

Yorkshire 299 

Large improved 299 



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BY CHARLES WM. BURKETT 



